# tblSTJOHN

Title:
Decision making strategy for handling biocides. Experience at Yuma Desalting Plant (Yuma AZ, USA).

Abstract:
A decision making strategy is proposed for handling and disposal of biocides required for protecting RO membranes in storing, shipping and operation. Most of the examples are derived from experience at the Yuma Desalination Plant.


Author:
Abdul Azis, P. K. , I. Al-Tisan, M.  Al-Daili, T.N. Green, A. Ghani I. Dalvi, and M. A. Javeed

Title:
Effects of environment on source water for desalination  plants on the eastern coast of Saudi Arabia.

Publication:
Desalination, V. 132, Issues 1-3.  Pp. 29-40.


Title:
Disposal of concentrate through spray irrigation: a report to the City of Boynton Beach

Publication:
Florida Atlantic University, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

Abstract:
The objectives of the spray irrigation project at the Boynton Beach Boulevard site were to: 1. Determine the feasibility of spray irrigation as a viable method of disposal of concentrate resulting from the ultrafiltration water purification project; 2. Assess the short term and long term impact of the concentrate on the ground water. To develop a model for the diffusion and transport of the concentrate components in the ground; 3. And to verify the model through experimental assessment of data gathered from the monitoring wells on site. The research team at Florida Atlantic University, in conjunction with FlU’s Drinking water Research Laboratory staff conducted an eighteen month study, including an eight month experimental evaluation. Through a carefully planned timetable, data was gathered to determine the soil and the groundwater conditions prior to spray irrigation, throughout the site preparation period when the ground was brought to saturation, during the spray irrigation period, and in the post-irrigation (or clean-up period) when the ground is being saturated with well water. The pH, hardness, T.O.C., and conductivity characteristics were determined for each monitoring well, at two levels of five, and ten feet throughout this time.


Author:
Acquaviva, D. J., Westrick, J. D., Dohme, C. I., and Derowitsch, R. W.

Title:
Reverse Osmosis Concentrate Disposal Alternatives for Small and Medium-sized Systems in Southwest Florida

Publication:
1997 Membrane Technology Conference. New Orleans, LA. Denver, CO: AWWA

Abstract:
Concentrate disposal is a very important component of reverse osmosis (RO) water treatment plant design and operation. Significant permitting and capital expense considerations are involved in this area of plant operations. RO concentrate is classified as an industrial waste by the USEPA and, as such, requires a discharge permit for disposal. Strict environmental regulations in the State of Florida, as administered by the FDEP, necessitate careful evaluation of the feasibility of various potential disposal options. This is especially true for small and medium-sized (less than 1.0 MGD concentrate generating) plants for which these regulations can potentially create extreme financial burdens. Three possible disposal options are discussed herein - surface water discharge, land application, and deep well injection via small diameter wells. A comparison is provided of the advantages, disadvantages, optional geographic settings, permitting requirements, and representative construction and operating costs for each type of system. Examples of recently permitted and installed systems are also provided for each of the three alternatives.


Author:
Acquaviva, D.J., R.A. Blind, R.W. Derowitsch, S.A. Storves, and A. Owosina

Title:
Establishment of Mixing Zones for Acute Toxicity and Other Water Quality Parameters for an R.O. Concentrate Discharge Offshore Sanibel Island, Florida

Publication:
1995 Membrane Technology Conference. Reno, NV. Denver, CO: AWWA

Abstract:
Reverse osmosis (RO) concentrate produced by the Island Water Association (IWA) water treatment plant (WTP) is disposed of by discharge, at an approximate rate if 1.05 million gallons per day (MGD), at an ocean outfall located approximately 600 feet offshore of Sanibel Island, Florida. RO concentrate is classified by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) and the USEPA as an industrial waste, therefore requiring a discharge permit. In early 1993, the IWA, through routine sampling of the concentrate at the WTP found that Class III marine water quality standards were being exceeded for the parameters of dissolved fluoride and radium 226. It was concluded by the IWA that a hydrographic study should be undertaken for the purpose of providing site specific discharge information to support an application for a modification of the discharge permit. The modification would consist of the establishment of mixing zones for those water quality parameters in noncompliance. During discussions with the FDEP in the process of obtaining conceptual approval for the proposed hydrographic study, it was recommended by the FDEP that the acute toxicity characteristics of the concentrate also be quantified. Acute toxicity standards were recently established by the FDEP and would need to be addressed when the discharge permit was reviewed for renewal in 1995. Therefore, the parameter of acute toxicity was also included as part of the hydrographie study. Acute toxicity is defined as the presence of any substance which is lethal to more than 50% of test organisms (e.g. the indicator organisms M. beryllina, a silverside minnow, and M. bahia, a possum shrimp). The hydrographic study was undertaken at the site during ‘worst case’ tidal flushing conditions. These conditions occur approximately 20 times per year at the site during periods of low low tides. The hydrographic study characterized site-specific hydraulic (water depth, current velocities) and water quality conditions during such a period of low low tide in late September, 1993. Relatively strong longshore current velocities were found to occur at the site even during ‘worst case’ conditions. Site-specific hydraulic data, including quantification of the outfall characteristics, were input, along with the concentrate water quality data, into a commercially available EPA expert-type computer model (CORMIX) to generate cross-sectional graphs of concentrations for the three water quality parameters versus distance along the azimuth direction of flow of the concentrate plume. The hydrographic study established that all regulatory criteria for permitting of mixing zones for the parameters of dissolved fluoride, radium 226, and acute toxicity, could be met at the site. Based upon the results of the study, the FDEP issued the discharge permit modification to include the requested mixing zones fbr those three parameters.


Title:
The ecological implications of tolerance to salinity by Ruppia cirrhosa (Petagna) Grande and Zostera capensis Setchell.


Author:
Ahmeda, M., W. H. Shayya, D.Hoeyc, A. Mahendranc, R. Morrisd and J. Al-Handalya

Title:
Use of evaporation ponds for brine disposal in desalination  plants.


Title:
Environmental impact of seawater desalination plants.

Abstract:
On the basis of monitoring results at the Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, desalination plant, the effects of such systems on the environment were assessed. Results indicate that desalination plants cause thermal and saline pollution in localized areas. Marine life is affected by increased seawater temperature, salinity, water currents, and turbidity. Emissions of sulfur, carbon, and nitrogen oxides from desalination boilers should be controlled to mitigate adverse air-pollution effects.


Title:
Concentrate from Membrane Desalting: A Logical Approach to its Disposal

Publication:
Sacramento, Cal. American Desalting Association


Title:
An Overview of RO Concentrate Disposal Methods

Publication:
Reverse Osmosis: Membrane Technology, Water Chemistry, and Industrial Applications. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 1993


Author:
Andrews, L.S., R.D. Moore, and C.T. Rose

Title:
Permitting the Discharge of Reverse Osmosis Concentrate to a Surface Water

Publication:
Proc. of the 1991 AWWA Annual Meeting. Orlando, Fla.: AWWA

Abstract:
Reverse osmosis (RO) has become an integral and vital process in a wide range of industrial and domestic uses throughout the world. However, the disposal of concentrate generated by the process is creating the issue of environmentally safe methods for such disposal. Heightened public awareness and regulatory constraints have placed limitation on disposal mechanisms. In the case of surface water disposal (SWD), the concentrate quality must be acceptable to the receiving body's water quality standards. Florida is one of the largest municipal users of RO to generate potable water  RO concentrate is classified by Florida as industrial waste. Mixing zones have become a way of diluting the RO concentrate before (SWD). Western states, such as California, apply a salt balance methodology on a regional basis in evaluation of concentrate disposal. SWD is usually made to tidally influenced water bodies, where a dilution ratio can be established. Another method of disposal is deep well injection, a way of underground discharge where SWD is not feasible. The US Environmental Protection Agency has comprehensive regulations and permit procedures for deep wells. Concentrate disposal can also be accomplished by land application, or spray irrigation, although this method is limited by concentrate quality. Concerns with this method focus on flora and fauna, crop tolerance, and groundwater supplies. Use of an existing wastewater treatment plant is possible, and there are no direct federal regulations limiting the discharge of concentrate to a facility. Evaporation systems, solar ponds, distillation systems, drain fields, and bore holes offer still other means of disposal.


Title:
Discharge of Membrane Technology Concentrate to Surface Waters: A Regulatory Perspective

Publication:
Proc. of the 1990 National Water Supply Improvement Association Biennial Conference. Walt Disney World Village, Fla.: NWSIA

Abstract:
Currently in Florida, there are greater than 100 membrane technology plants in operation, construction, or in various stages of design. The majority of these plants use, or will use a surface water discharge to dispose of the concentrate generated during plant operation. Since many of the plants being proposed are much larger than early plants, there will be a corresponding increase in the amount of concentrate produced. This paper reviews Florida's regulatory approach to surface water discharge of membrane concentrate. The paper discusses common problems with membrane concentrates including increased levels of radionuclides, iron, fluoride and hydrogen sulfide and how Florida has encouraged solutions to these problems through early communication and preliminary site investigations.


Title:
Proceedings of the IDA and WRPC World Conference on Desalination  and Water Treatment

Abstract:
The proceedings contains 47 papers on desalination plants and processes. Some of the topics covered are: Multi stage flash desalination plants; heat transfer coefficients; plant material selection; stress corrosion cracking; cracking resistance; antiscalant agents; corrosion behavior of alloys; corrosion data storage and retrieval; reverse osmosis; plant operational costs optimization; electricity and water production; water treatment; and desalination process automation.


Title:
Environmental Impacts and Regulatory Issues

Publication:
Seawater desalination: meeting the needs of California's coastal communities.  Seminar held by the University of California at Santa Barbara Extension.


Title:
Investigation of desalination plant toxicity.  Southern California Coastal Water Research Project.


Title:
Desalting Experience by Hyperfiltration (Reverse Osmosis) in the United States

Publication:
In Synthetic Membrane Processes. Edited by G. Belfort. Orlando, Ha.: Academic Press


Title:
Ecology of manatees (Trichechus manatus) in the St. Johns River, Florida.

Publication:
Unpubl. PhD. Dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.  126 pp.


Author:
BenJemaaa, Fethi,  I. Houcinea and M. Hachemi Chahbania

Title:
Desalination  in Tunisia: Past experience and future prospects.

Publication:
Desalination V. 116:(2-3).   Pp. 123-133.  September 1998


Publication:
Journal AWWA, Vol. 88, No. 5, pp. 32-43.

Abstract:
Costs for membrane softening plants in Florida with capacities from 1 to 14 mgd (3.8 to 53 ML/d) are presented. Costs for installed membrane system, water treatment plant construction, operation and maintenance, and total treated water production are included based on data from the author's survey of operating membrane softening plants. Unit cost curves are included as a function of installed membrane permeate capacity. The effects of membrane bypass and blending, plant operating factors, concentrate disposal, and amortization at various interest rates are discussed.


Author:
Blake, N. J.; Dye, C. W.; Farrell, M. D.; Hammond, M. A.

Title:
Effects of disposal of seawater desalination discharges on near shore benthic communities - Phase 1 report

Publication:
Southwest Florida Water Management District

Abstract:
Populated areas of peninsular Florida, like other parts of the coastal continental United States (e.g., Southern California), are experiencing potable water supply problems related to the overdraft of ground water and the undependable nature of surface water resources. Alternative sources of water such as seawater desalination are currently under investigation to alleviate these difficulties. Although the technology for desalinating brackish water and seawater is well established, questions remain concerning the proper discharge of the concentrated salt solution (i.e., concentrate or brine) which is a by-product of the desalination process. Of particular concern is the potential toxicity of the concentrate discharge to indigenous organisms in a receiving water body (Whiting and Wolfe 1996), and the related regulatory requirements which are complex (Pontius et at 1996). The goal of this investigation was to evaluate existing seawater reverse osmosis facilities and select up to three plants at which to conduct further detailed investigations to document the structure and health of the benthic biological communities within the discharge zone, as well as to verify the B-Cormix plume model (Phase Two). The objectives to accomplish this goal were to conduct site investigations at existing seawater reverse osmosis plants to determine if: 1) the discharge area was suitable for a detailed biological study; and 2) if the discharge structure was suitable for studying the plume dispersion characteristics to verify the B-Cormix plume model.


Title:
An Ecological Study in the Vicinity of P.L. Bartow Power Plant, Tampa Bay, Florida

Publication:
Contribution #42, Department of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, Florida.


Author:
Bonné, P. A. C. , E. F. Beerendonkb, J. P. van der Hoeka, and J. A. M. H. Hofmana

Title:
Retention of herbicides and pesticides in relation to aging of RO membranes.

Publication:
Desalination, V. 132, Issues 1-3.  Pp. 189-193.


Title:
Seagrasses : monitoring, ecology, physiology, and management.

Publication:
Boca Raton, Fla. : CRC Press, c2000.  318 p. : ill., maps ; 26 cm.


Title:
Irrigation with  Membrane Plant  Concentrate: Fort Myers Case Study

Publication:
Desalination, Vol. 78, No. 1, p 49-58, July 1990

Abstract:
Use of irrigation as the primary disposal method of membrane plant concentrate becomes more difficult as the salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS) of the feedwaters increase beyond the freshwater levels. Crop tolerances to specific ions become of greater concern. Blending with suitable irrigation water supplies is a means of decreasing the applied salinity and TDS concentrations. Guidelines for interpretation of water quality for irrigation are discussed, along with a list of recommended maximum trace element levels in irrigation waters. A case study was made of the Fort Myers membrane softening plant. Water quality data was obtained and analyzed for the feed and reject water (concentrate) from the pilot scale testing plant on June 22, 1988. One possible use for the waste concentrate is as a supplemental irrigation supply for the golf course located adjacent to the City 's proposed water plant site. Excess concentrate not utilized for irrigation will be discharged off of the golf course site in accordance with the drainage plan of the course. Plans for use of concentrate from the proposed Fort Myers membrane softening plant must encompass a wide variety of considerations including determination of the irrigation suitability of the concentrate without blending, a study of the potential impacts of introducing concentrate to the existing surface water, a study of the potential impact on groundwaters beyond projected zones of discharge, and a study of the potential impact from discharge of excess blended waters to the City 's stormwater drainage system. The use of membrane softening concentrate as an irrigation supply appears feasible for the City of Fort Myers, based on generalized irrigation guidelines and applicable state water quality criteria.


Title:
Improving reverse osmosis recovery from high-sulfate waters

Abstract:
The City of Venice, Florida, utilizes reverse osmosis to treat groundwater that is rich in calcium sulfate (CaSO4). An evaluation was conducted at the City’s reverse osmosis water treatment plant (ROWTP) to investigate groundwater conservation by improved water recovery. A single-stage 4-inch diameter pilot plant test ioop was designed, constructed and placed into operation to study effects of scale inhibitor performance under increased plant operation recovery. Mass balances of water quality parameters were calculated to assess the performance of the single membrane element. The operation data indicated that an increased recovery rate was achieved by tolerating a higher concentration of CaSO4 in the membrane concentrate stream. The pilot scale testing described within this report demonstrated the ability of scale inhibitor to prevent CaSO4 scaling at recoveries greater than the current 50 percent design water recovery.


Title:
Seawater desalination project: desalination pilot plant report


Title:
Brackish Groundwater Reclamation Study for Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

Publication:
Newport Beach, Calif.: Boyle Engineering Corp.


Publication:
Western Water, July/August 1991, pp. 4-11


Title:
Groundwater/surface water interactions in Tampa Bay.  Implications for nutrient fluxes.

Publication:
USF Center for Nearshore Marine Science.  Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #06-92.


Title:
Pilot testing answers questions regarding taste and concentrate trace elements

Publication:
Proceedings of the 2001 AWWA Membrane Technology Conference.

Abstract:
For over 25 years, brackish water from wells along South Francisco Bay has been pumped to tidal sloughs as part of a basin wide aquifer reclamation program (ARP) operated by the Alameda County Water District (District). The water was high in chlorides, hardness and overall TDS as a result of salt water intrusion, but otherwise met all potable water criteria. Beginning in 1990, several brackish groundwater projects were completed in California demonstrating the cost effectiveness of using reverse osmosis (RO) for producing potable water from brackish water. The District needed to increase the water supply due to continued increases in residential and industrial demand, and an integrated resource plan (IRP) recommended building a 10 mgd (permeate) brackish water RO system. The source water would be the 8000-12,000 ac-ft of ARP well water discharged to the San Francisco Bay each year.


Author:
Bruzek, D., D. Mahadevan, V. Bruggemeyer and E.P.Taft.

Title:
Fine Mesh Screens:  A new approach to preventing entrainment.   (in: Mahadevan, K. and others, editors)

Publication:
Proceedings: Southeastern Workshop on Aquatic Ecological Effecs of Power Generation.  Report No. 124.  Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, Florida


Title:
Disposal of concentrates from brackish water desalting plants: proceedings of a seminar held at Mac Arthur's Holiday Inn, November 18, 1988, Palm Beach Gardens, Florida

Abstract:
The use of membrane processes, especially reverse osmosis, has become an extremely popular and economical water treatment technology in Florida over the past decade. Currently, Florida has more membrane capacity than any other state in the country. This capacity will soon exceed 100 million gallons a day (MGD) and many large plants of 5 and 10 MGD are being designed for future construction. Membrane plants can play an important role in providing potable water for many of the fast growing coastal areas of the state. Now that membrane technology has proven to be successful, it is important to consider some of the other things that are crucial to the use of membrane processes in Florida. The most important of these is the disposal of the concentrate (also called reject or brine) stream from the plants. This stream can amount to 50 to 100 percent of the volume of the potable water produced. To allow membrane processes to continue to increase in use, it is crucial to be able to dispose of this waste in an environmentally safe and cost effective manner. This problem has attracted considerable attention in the state and it was an appropriate topic for a day long seminar that was held on November 18, 1988 at MacArthur’s Holiday Inn in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida.


Publication:
Topsfield, Mass.: IDA.  California Coastal Commission. 1991. “Seawater Desalination in Califonria.” Preliminary Draft. California Coastal Commission.


Title:
Analysis of brine disposal in the Gulf of Mexico

Publication:
Washington, D. C.: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Data Service, Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis

Abstract:
In implementing the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SRP) Program, the Federal Energy Administration (PEA) proposes to use storage caverns leached out of salt domes in the Capline Sector at Weeks Island and Chacahoula along the Louisiana Coast. Discharge into the Gulf of Mexico is an alternative under consideration for disposal of the saturated brine to be produced as additional caverns are solution-mined. This report examines the potential environmental impact of this brine disposal alternative. Included is an extensive summary of physiographic, meteorological, and oceanographic conditions in the Capline Sector; a comprehensive review of ecological conditions in the area; analysis of the dispersion of salt brine to be discharged at several locations offshore, under different environmental conditions and for selected diffuser designs; general criteria for a brine diffuser for each of the two sites under consideration; and the potential impact of brine due to osmotic stress.


Title:
Chapter Three:  Potential Environmental Impacts/Coastal Act Issues.

Abstract:
Construction (Impacts/Related Policies; Potential Mitigation Measures); Energy Use (Impacts/Related Policies; Cogeneration; Other Options for Saving Energy; Potential Mitigation Measures); Air Quality (Impacts/Related Policies; Potential Mitigation Measures); Marine Environment (Related Policies; Constituents of Waste Discharges from Desalination Plants;Marine Resource Impacts from Desalination Waste Discharges; Waste Discharge Methods; Marine Resources Impacts from Desalination Plant Intake; More Information is Needed on Marine Resource Impacts;Pre-Operational Monitoring and Baseline Information on Marine Resources; Post-Operational Monitoring of Marine Resources; Potential Mitigation Measures to Reduce Marine Resource Impacts); Increased Development (Potential Growth-Inducing Impacts of Providing Desalinated Water/Related Policies; Potential Mitigation Measures to Minimize Growth-Inducing Impacts); Other Coastal Zone Issues (Impacts; Potential Mitigation Measures to Minimize the Impacts)


Title:
Water Supply Needs and Sources Assessment: Alternative Water Supply Strategies Investigation: Brackish Ground Water Treatment: Planning-Level Cost Estimates

Publication:
Saint Johns River Water Management District - Special Publication SJ2001-SP5

Abstract:
A complete set of planning-level brackish ground water supply cost estimating equations has been developed for SJRWMD’s Water Supply Alternatives Evaluation Program. The cost equations are applicable to SJRWMD’s alternative water supply planning area and include cost equations for complete desalting systems, as well as equations for minimal treatment or blending systems. The cost equations are applicable only for preliminary area-wide planning, for which they were derived. The treatment cost equations apply to the six selected brackish ground water withdrawal sites and are not directly transferable to other withdrawal sites. These cost equations can then be used to rapidly develop cost estimates for several brackish ground water alternatives, which can be used to define brackish ground water development costs in the University of Florida Decision Model in subsequent phases of this investigation. The cost equations presented in this TM can also be used to investigate brackish ground water supply options independent of the University of Florida Decision Model application. Two hypothetical brackish ground water development examples are presented to illustrate proper application of these equations. All cost estimates and cost equations presented in this TM are planning-level or “cost curve” estimates. These estimates will vary from actual project costs, which are based on detailed designs. Planning-level cost estimates are generally accurate to within plus or minus 50 percent of actual costs for the same design conditions and design criteria.


Title:
Water Supply Needs and Sources Assessment: Alternative Water Supply Strategies Investigation: Brackish Ground Water Treatment Technology Assessment

Publication:
Saint Johns River Water Management District - Special Publication SJ97-SP19

Abstract:
Brackish ground water is one of several alternative water supply sources being evaluated by SJRWMD. This TM is the second of three that addresses the technical feasibility and costs of developing brackish ground water resources to help meet future water supply needs for selected water supply source areas located within the Water Resource Caution Area. This TM reviews available information on brackish ground water treatment technologies and brackish ground water characteristics. Based on this review, the TM presents a methodology to be used in establishing planning-level cost estimates.


Title:
Water Supply Needs and Sources Assessment: Alternative Water Supply Strategies Investigation: Brackish Ground Water: Source Identification and Assessment

Publication:
Saint Johns River Water Management District - Special Publication SJ2001-SP4

Abstract:
This TM characterizes the brackish ground water resources within the SJRWMD Priority Water Resource Caution Area. Brackish ground water parameters of interest include: Thickness of the Upper Floridan aquifer; Depth to the 250-mg/L isochlor; Depth to the 1,000-mg/L isochlor; Thickness of the brackish water within the Upper Floridan aquifer; Percentage of brackish water within the Upper Floridan aquifer; Recharge rate to the Upper Floridan aquifer. Mapping each of these parameters was accomplished by applying GIS techniques to the SJRWMD GIS database. Criteria were then developed to rank each of the above parameters. In general, areas in which the Upper Floridan aquifer is relatively thick and contains mostly brackish ground water with chloride concentrations ranging from 250 to 1,000 mg/L are most attractive for brackish water supply development. In addition, ground water discharge areas are preferred to ground water recharge areas because the potential for undesirable impacts to nearby wetlands is less in discharge areas. Using relative rankings for each of the parameters, areas with low, medium, and high potential for developing brackish ground water supplies were identified. Six candidate brackish ground water withdrawal sites were then identified, based on relative water supply development potential and proximity to demand centers.


Title:
Preliminary feasibility study report of seawater desalination options for Goleta Water District


Title:
Biological impact of large-scale desalination plant at Key West Florida.

Publication:
Tropical Marine Pollution. New York. Elsevir Scientific Publishing


Title:
Biological impact of a Large-scale Desalination Plant at Key West

Publication:
U.S. Government Printing Office - Washington, D.C.


Title:
A comparative biological assessment of Cape Coral's proposed concentrate mixing zone.

Publication:
City of Cape Coral Environmental Resources Section.  15pp. & appendices

Abstract:
Benthic infauna diversity and taxa richness are compared between a reverse osmosis concentrate discharge region (sample sites “R.O.1” and “R.O.2”) and a hydrologically separate control site (sample site “Bimini”). Phytoplankton abundance, diversity and taxa richness are also compared among the sample sites. This study’s results show that the concentrate discharge has no adverse impact on the diversity of the benthic infauna at the discharge site. Mean diversity was significantly higher at one of the discharge’s sample sites than the control site (R.O.2: 3.10 vs.Bimini: 1 .25, p<0.05). Differences in mean infauna taxa richnesses were insignificant between the mixing zone sites and the control site (R.O.1: 16.33, R.0.2: 18.33, and Bimini: 11.00, p<0.05). Phytoplankton taxa richnesses were nearly identical among the sample sites (R.O.1: 5, R.O.2: 6 and Bimini: 6). Shannon Weaver Diversity Indices were also similar in all three plankton samples (R.O.1: 1.32, R.O.2: 1.94 and Bimini: 1.16). Phytoplankton samples from stations R.O.1 and R.O.2 were dominated by centric diatoms (95%). The control site’s phytoplankton sample was dominated by Anabaena, a blue-green bacterium.


Author:
Clarke, W. D., J. W. Joy, and R. J. Rosenthal

Title:
Biological Effects of Effluent from a Desalination Plant at Key West, Florida

Publication:
U.S. Government Printing Oflice, Washington. D.C.


Title:
A monitoring program to assess environmental changes in Tampa Bay, Florida.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #02-93.  75 pp.


Title:
An analysis of the effects of freshwater inflows on salinity distributions, dissolved oxygen concentrations, habitat characteristics of the Hillsborough River and Palm River/Tampa Bypass Canal.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Eestuary Program Tech Pub #08-97


Title:
Physical impacts to habitats in Tampa Bay.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #03-93.  134 pp.


Title:
Distribution of selected fish species in Tampa Bay

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #05-92.


Title:
Oligohaline areas in Tampa Bay tributaries:  Spatial extent and species lists.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #04-92.


Title:
Cumulative impact analysis for master water plan projects

Publication:
Prepared for West Coast Regional Water Supply Authority.


Title:
1989b. Protection of Environment - Underground Injection Control Program Criteria and Standards. 40 CFR, Part 146

Abstract:
Applicability and scope: (a) This part sets forth technical criteria and standards for the Underground Injection Control Program. This part should be read in conjunction with 40 CFR parts 124, 144, and 145, which also apply to UIC programs. 40 CFR part 144 defines the regulatory framework of EPA administered permit programs. 40 CFR part 145 describes the elements of an approvable State program and procedures for EPA approval of State participation in the permit programs. 40 CFR part 124 describes the procedures the Agency will use for issuing permits under the covered programs. Certain of these procedures will also apply to State-administered programs as specified in 40 CFR part 145; (b) Upon the approval, partial approval or promulgation of a State UIC program by the Administrator, any underground injection which is not authorized by the Director by rule or by permit is unlawful.


Title:
1989a. Protection of Environment - Underground lnjection Control Program. 40 CER, Part 144

Abstract:
Contents of part 144: The regulations in this part set forth requirements for the Underground Injection Control (UIC) program promulgated under Part C of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and, to the extent that they deal with hazardous waste, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Applicability: (1) The regulations in this part establish minimum requirements for UIC programs. To the extent set forth in part 145, each State must meet these requirements in order to obtain primary enforcement authority for the UIC program in that State; (2) In addition to serving as minimum requirements for UIC programs, the regulations in this part constitute a part of the UIC program for States listed in part 147 to be administered directly by EPA.


Author:
Comp, G.S., S. Mahadevan, and T.D. Phillips

Title:
A study of the biological characteristics of saltwater settling pond discharge at the Big Bend Power Plant, Tampa Electric Company, Tampa, Florida.

Publication:
Technical report submitted to TECO, by Mote Marine Laboratory, 28 March 1980.  22 pp.


Publication:
Presented to Southwest Florida Branch ASCE, Fort Myers Beach, April 1986


Title:
“Will Reverse Osmosis (Membrane Softening) Replace Lime Softening in Water Treatment?

Publication:
Presented at the Florida Waterworks Association, 1984 Convention, Innisbrook, Florida, June 1984.


Title:
“Economics of Low Pressure Reverse Osmosis and Lime Softening for Potable Water Treatment”

Publication:
Presented at the Summer National Meeting of the AIChE Meeting, Seattle, Washington, August 1985


Publication:
Chapter XI - Water Quality  and Treatment AWWA, fourth edition, McGraw-Hill, 1990.

Abstract:
Chapter 11. Membrane Processes :Types of Membrane Processes; History and Development of Membranes; Reverse Osmosis; Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal; Ultrafiltration; Process Performance and Selection; Waste Disposal; Nanofiltration—An Emerging Technology; Acknowledgment; References.


Title:
Disposal of Concentrate from Membrane Process Plants

Publication:
Pre­sented at Seminar S4, Membrane Process Principles and Practice, 62nd AWWA Annual Conference and Exposition, Orlando, Florida, June 1988.  Published in AWWA Seminar Proceedings, June 1988

Abstract:
Membrane process plants generate a waste stream called concentrate. The waste stream disposal problem is also common to distillation and ion exchange water treatment plant processes. In addition, other industries generate waste concentrate streams. This paper gives a history of various disposal methods and discusses current concentrate disposal methods: surface water discharge, spray irrigation, evaporation ponds, drainfields and  boreholes,  deep-well injection, evaporation and crystallization technology, solar ponds and solar distillation. Disposal method costs, current disposal regulations and future regulatory trends are discussed.


Title:
Pilot Field Test Data for Prototype Ultra Low Pressure Reverse Osmosis Ele­ments

Publication:
Proceedings of the Second World Congress on Desali­nation and Water Reuse, Vol. 3, International Desalination Association, Southhampton, Bermuda, November 1985.

Abstract:
The need for ultra low pressure RO elements has been evident since the membrane softening idea was conceived over a decade ago, especially in water short areas such as the peninsula of Florida, USA. An in depth case study and cost analysis proves that the membrane softening process using ultra low pressure elements can be competitive with conventional treatment processes and may be the answer to Florida's predicted water shortage, potential problems with organic contaminants and salt water intrusion.


Title:
Membrane Systems Advancements and Applications

Publication:
Presented at 57th Annual Technical Conference, FS/AWWA, FPCA, and FW&PCOA, Miami Beach, Flori­da, October 1983.

Abstract:
This paper discusses advancements in reverse osmosis membrane technology and the ancillary components which make up the total membrane desalination system. Brackish water reverse osmosis systems or process water systems are specifically addressed. Advances in the following areas are described: feedwater supply; pretreatment; high pressure pumping; membrane assembly post-treatment;  instrumentation  and controls; cleaning and flushing systems; energy recovery devices; brine disposal; reverse osmosis plant buildings; and ultrafiltration.


Title:
“Reverse Osmosis Technology and It’s Application In West Central Florida”,

Publication:
Presented at Water Basin Board Meeting, Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, Florida, December 1985


Publication:
Presented at the Florida Water and Pollution Control Operator’s Association and the University of Florida’s TREEO Center, 55th Annual Short School, Gainesville, Florida, August 1986


Publication:
Presented at the Florida Water and Pollution Control Operator’s Association and the University of Florida’s TREEO Center, 54th Annual Short School, Gainesville, Florida, August 1985


Publication:
Presented at the Florida Water and Pollution Control Operator’s Association and the University of Florida’s TREEO Center, 56th Annual Short School, Gainesville, Florida, August 1987


Publication:
Presented at 53rd FWPCOA Annual Short School, TREEO Center, University of Florida, August 1984


Title:
“Reverse Osmosis and Ultrafiltration Process Applications”,

Publication:
Presented at Water Conservation Task Force Meeting, Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, Florida, March 1985


Publication:
Presented at the 10th Annual Meeting of the Florida Association for Water Quality Control, Jupiter Beach, Florida, May 1987


Publication:
Florida Engineering Society Reverse Osmosis Seminar, Tampa, Florida, June 1990.


Title:
Disposal of Concentrate From Membrane Process Plants

Publication:
Waterworld News, AWWA, Volume 5, No. 1, Jan./Feb.: 18-19


Author:
Conlon, W.J.  B.M. Watson, C.D. Hornburg,  and , C.A. Kiefer

Title:
Membrane Softening - The Concept and Application to Municipal Water Supply

Publication:
Pre­sented at 4th World Congress on Desalination and Water Re-Use, State of Kuwait, November 1989.  Published in Desalination, Vol. 78, 157-176, Elsevier Science Publishers, B.V. Amsterdam

Abstract:
This paper gives an overview of membrane softening instead of lime softening of groundwater in Florida. The evolution of the process, the treatment train and costs of the process, and its advantages are discussed. Florida groundwaters are characterized. The benefits of blending waters are also discussed.


Title:
Energy Recovery in Low Pressure Membrane Plants

Publication:
Proceedings of  the First Biennial Conference,  Is Current Technology the Answer?, National Water Supply Improvement Association, Washington, D.C., June 1986 (with Rohe, D.)

Abstract:
Three reverse running turbine pump submersible generator installations at low pressure brackish water reverse osmosis (RO) plants are described. Operating data and installation costs are provided for one reverse running turbine generator currently in operation, with technical details summarized for the two future installations. The advantages and disadvantages of reverse running turbine pump generators as compared with Pelton wheel impulse turbine energy recovery devices are discussed. Power recovery, cost savings, and payback period calculations for the installed reverse running turbine pump are provided. Conclusions and recommendations are made regarding the application of energy recovery turbines to brackish water RO plants.


Title:
Brine Waste Disposal from Membrane Processes

Publication:
1991 AWWA/WPCF Joint Residuals Management Conference, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina

Abstract:
All membrane processes produce residual waste streams, however not all membrane processes generate a waste stream that could be classified as brine. Brine should not be confused with concentrate. Disposal methods for concentrates  can  be  divided into two categories: conventional or nonconventional. The constraints of each are explained. Whichever disposal option is selected, the overall disposal costs will be site specific. Cost variables depend on a number of factors, including pretreatment, which may become more complex as regulations governing disposal of concentrate evolve. The evolution of regulations is covered, from early regulations to the present day, and research needs are outlined.


Title:
Reverse Osmosis Feasibility Study - West Coast Regional Water Supply Authority

Publication:
Presented at Greater Tampa Chamber of Commerce Water Conference, “The State of the Resource, Tampa, Florida, March 1987,


Publication:
Presented at Seminar S1, Basic Principles of Membrane Processes, AWWA Mem­brane Processes Conference, Orlando, Florida, March 1991


Title:
"Reverse Osmosis Operation at Pine Island, Lee County, Florida,"

Publication:
," Presented at 3rd Annual Conference of the National Water Supply Improvement Association, North Key Largo, Florida, July 1975


Title:
Membrane Softening, a Water Treatment Process That Has Come of Age

Publication:
Presented at 61st Annual Technical Confer­ence, FS/AWWA, FPCA, and FW&PCOA, Jacksonville, Florida, November 1987.  Published in JAWWA Vol. 81, No. 11, November 1989

Abstract:
This paper discusses the use of modified reverse osmosis membranes to treat waters with low total dissolved solids (TDS) as a substitute for lime softening.  This  process  is referred to as membrane softening or nanofiltration. The advantages to this process include: improved site aesthetics; overall superior quality of product water; more effective organic and inorganic removals; barrier against bacteria and virus; greater possibility  of  meeting future regulatory maximum contaminant level standards without adding additional treatment processes; ease of operation resulting in less operator attendance time; no lime-sludge disposal problems; reduction in quantity of required chlorine due to low product water  organics;  and greater versatility in planning initial plant capacities and future expansions.


Title:
"Venice Low Pressure Reverse Osmosis - The Wave of the Future," Presented at 10th Annual Conference of the National Water Supply Improvement Associa­tion, 1982 (with Hendershaw, W.K.).


Author:
Conlon, W.J.,   J.E. Smith, D. Paul,  W. H. Harlow, H.L. Rhodes, , B.M Watson, T.M. Leahy and  O.K. Buros,

Title:
The Disposal of  Desalting Concentrates, Where do we go from here?

Publication:
?” Proceedings, The International Journal of Water Desalting and Purification, 78 (1990) 99-112, Palm Beach, Florida

Abstract:
Six desalination experts discuss the need for cooperation among industry, government and the public in solving the problem of disposal of desalting concentrates; examples of zero discharge facilities and other facilities that practice extensive reuse; economic considerations; regulations affecting disposal; the work of a task force to address concentrate disposal; the plugging of injection wells; political and permitting problems with environmentalists or regulators; training; plant operations; and reuse and resource recovery.


Author:
Conlon, W.J., C.A. Kiefer, H.J. Losch,  and R.A. Terrero

Title:
Marco Island RO Plant, Overcoming Regulatory and Construction Obstacles, A Case Study

Publication:
Seminars S5, 1992 AWWA Annual Conference and Exposition, Vancouver, BC, June 1992

Abstract:
Initially,  the Marco Island brackish water reverse osmosis plant construction project was planned to be completed on a fast-track basis to satisfy certain regulatory and quality of service requirements. Theseincluded: improve system operating pressures; increase capacity to provide service for present and anticipated customers; improve the reliability of the present water supply and treatment facilities; bring the facility online, concurrent with other major improvements, to meet expected system deficiencies and to avoid numerous rate filings and any unnecessary delay in recovery of rates. These objectives were hindered by rapidly developing, unpredictable factors which include: changing county and state permitting requirements; intervention by special interest groups; manufacturers-patent law suit and long lead time required on specialty equipment orders; soil and geological anomalies; contractors and sub-contractors; and project control. The objectives of presenting this case study are to increase the awareness of possible pitfalls and suggest ways to minimize the delays and increased project costs that were experienced during the Marco Island project.


Publication:
Technology Transfer Handbook, Management of Water Treatment Plant Residuals, ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, AWWA Technology transfer Handbook, U.S. EPA/625/R-95/008

Abstract:
Chapter 9 – Brine Waste Disposal: 9.1 Background Information; 9.2 Conventional Disposal Methods; 9.3 Nonconventional Methods of Concentrate Disposal; 9.4 Costs Associated with Brine Waste Disposal; 9.5 Conclusion


Author:
Conlon, W.J.; Smith, J.E.; DiBona, P. A.; Helmick, J.; Jones, A.

Publication:
1991 ASCE National Conference of Environmental Engineering, Reno, Nevada, July 1991

Abstract:
The ASCE Task Committee on Water Treatment Plant Residuals conducted an informal survey of state and federal agencies to collect data regarding the regulation of drinking water treatment residuals (iron, alum, and lime sludges, and membrane process concentrates/brines). Respondents described treatment and disposal requirements and outlined approved methods of disposal. Following a description of the survey results, a table summarizing the regulatory, economic, and operational considerations associated with each disposal option is provided.


Publication:
Presented at 62nd AWWA Annual Conference and Exposition, Orlando, Florida, June 1988.  Published in JAWWA Vol. 81, No. 11, November 1989

Abstract:
Florida water suppliers have been using membrane treatment technology for decades. The first membrane systems were used in isolated instances for desalinating  limited amounts of seawater; costs were high and the technology was relatively unperfected. Rapid development of coastal areas, with their abundant supplies of brackish water, has led many larger water suppliers to turn to membrane systems to meet increasing demand. Advances in membrane technology, its ability to produce high-quality water, and the flexibility  offered  by  modular  expandability  have  enhanced the cost-effectiveness of reverse osmosis and electrodialysis as treatment options. Almost 100 Florida water systems are now using membrane processes to produce a total of nearly 50 mgd, and existing plans call for total production capacity to more than triple. Considering the changes in water quality concerns brought about by the 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act amendments, many other areas of the country will also have to consider the use of membrane technology.


Title:
Historic Development of the Concentrate Regulations

Publication:
Present­ed at Brine Reject Disposal Seminar sponsored by the National Water Supply Improvement Associ­ation and the South Florida Water Management District, Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, November 1988.

Abstract:
Florida has the highest percentage of membrane process plants in the United States. Membrane processes will play an important role as a treatment technology which will assist the water treatment industry to meet present and future drinking water regulations. Perhaps membrane technology will be the best available technology in terms of the greatest organic and inorganic contaminant removal for the amount of capital invested. However, safe methods of concentrate disposal will be necessary, as well as fair and pragmatic regulations concerning disposal, for the application of membrane processes to continue. Information on the characterization of concentrate discharges and deep well injection economics as they relate to all construction will assist the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (FDER) in its negotiations with EPA on the creation of a separate class of injection wells solely for process concentrate design. A recent rule change to 17-28, Florida Administrative Code (FAC) allows membrane process plants discharging into Class G-III or Class G-IV groundwater to discharge non-hazardous concentrate through land application to aquifers containing greater than 1500 mg/L total dissolved solids. This demonstrates that regulations can be changed for the better through the cooperation of FDER with consultants, utility owners, and other interested parties. Further cooperation may result in additional rule changes and more uniform interpretation of the existing rules and regulations.


Title:
Desalination Systems Concentrate Management Solutions

Publication:
Presented at the California-Nevada Section AWWA 1994 Fall Conference, San Diego, California, October 1994


Title:
Environmental, Legislative and Educational Issues Impacting the Desalination Industry - Both Public and Private

Publication:
Presented at NWSIA 1992 Biennial Confer­ence, Yuma, AZ, August 1992


Publication:
Presented at the Southwest Florida Water Management District’s Task Force on Water Conservation Conference, Tampa, Florida, March 1985


Author:
Conlon,W.J., C.A. Kiefer, L. Horvath, R.A. Terrero nd D.R. Andrews

Title:
Planning and Design of a Reverse Osmosis Plant Using a Deteriorating Water Supply

Publication:
Presented at AWWA Membrane Processes Conference, Orlando, Florida, March 1991

Abstract:
It is possible to design a plant which can be initially operated on brackish water and later converted to operate on seawater; however, because of the extreme variation in the operation parameters, it is not very cost effective. In the case presented, an alternate water source was available, providing the capability to treat seawater was not economically viable. In other cases, where brackish water lenses exist but have slow recharge rates, it may be more feasible to initially install a brackish water system and operate the plant until the water quality begins to deteriorate. Then the production from the brackish plant could be reduced to levels which could be sustained by the recharge rate. The shortfall in production resulting from reduced brackish water plant capacity would have to be replaced by capacity from a new seawater plant.


Author:
Conlon,W.J., D.L. Rohe, S.A. McClellan, and W.T. McGivney

Title:
Membrane Softening Facilities in South Florida - A Cost Update

Publication:
Presented at 62nd Annual Technical Conference, FS/AWWA, FPCA, and FW & PCOA, Fort Laud­erdale, Florida, November 1988

Abstract:
This paper presents cost analysis of membrane softening facilities in South Florida. Capital costs of facilities are analyzed including membranes and support equipment. Operation and Maintenance costs are also analyzed based upon expected and actual performance of the facilities. Costs are presented in cost curve format. Facilities included in the analysis include those that are in operation, under construction and in the design stage.


Author:
Conlon,W.J., N.L.  Patania, R.R. Trussell and J.G. Jacangelo


Author:
Cornwell, D.A., M.M. Bishop, R.G. Gould, and C. Vandermeyden

Title:
Handbook of Practice: Water Treatment Plant Waste Management


Title:
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Sample Analysis - Antigua: In Support of Investigations of the Effects of Brine Discharge on a Caribbean Seagrass Bed

Publication:
Mote Marine Laboratory Technical Report No. 569, Sarasota, Florida


Author:
Dames & Moore and Mote Marine Laboratory.

Title:
Final Report: Impact of freshwater flow variations in the Manatee River.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #09-94


Publication:
Desalination vol. 97, no. 1-3 pp. 365-372; Proceedings of the IDA and WRPC world conference on desalination and water treatment, November 3-6, 1993, Yokohama, Japan.  Desalination and water treatment in harmony with the environment

Abstract:
As a result of increased interest by USA utilities and water agencies in sea water reverse osmosis (SWRO), the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) sponsored a program to evaluate the behavior of concentrated brine discharges from desalination plants to the ocean. SWRO with recovery ratios up to 50% poses a potential problem because the dense brine concentrate sinks to the ocean floor and may threaten the benthic environment. Little work had been done on negatively buoyant effluents, including brine discharges. The EPA CORMIX computer code was extended to B-CORMIX (Brine-CORMIX) to enable the modeling of both submerged and surface brine discharges. The CORMIX/B-CORMIX codes were used to investigate several brine discharge scenarios including pure brine and brine co-discharged with wastewater. In addition, U.S. EPA discharge rules were adopted to classify brine discharge and suggestions were made for mixing zone definitions and dilution criteria based on the tolerance of biota to higher salinities.


Author:
Dye, C. W.; Farrell, M. D.; Hammond, M. A.; Wylupek, Q. D.

Title:
Seawater desalination, an investigation of concentrate disposal by means of a coastal ocean outfall

Abstract:
In response to a mounting concern for increased water demands in the face of regional environmental degradation from over-drafting the hydrologic system, the Southwest Florida Water Management District (District) initiated a very aggressive program to evaluate and take action to address the various water management concerns. As the process evolved, the investigations pointed toward many problems that would have to be resolved to meet District rules and Florida Statutes as they pertain specifically to adverse environmental impacts. The future needs for water lathe Tampa Bay area will steadily increase with time and enviromnentally compatible solutions must be found to meet the needs for sustainable growth. The expedited development of alternative water supplies is critical to solving the water supply issues in Tampa Bay. When all issues are given full consideration, it is the District's position that seawater desalination holds great potential to meet the current and future needs for Tampa Bay. The District initiated an effort to address the two major obstacles associated with seawater desalination; cost and disposal of the waste concentrate. This investigation dealt solely with the issue of concentrate discharge. Joining forces with agencies which had a common interest or regulatory oversight seemed the appropriate way to expedite possible solutions and make the best use of District resources. This cooperative effort has demonstrated that seawater desalination can be a safe, dependable, and environmentally-compatible water supply source. Specifically, the analyses show that the chemistry of the raw seawater and concentrate indicates no problem contaminants. Additionally, the acute and chronic toxicity test results show that state standards can be met at the Anclote site, and applied elsewhere, for a seawater desalination concentrate discharge through predischarge dilution or an acceptable mixing zone. There do not appear to be any acute toxicity effects related to ionic imbalance or to the high salinity concentrate effluent, since all 96-hour L050 values for the acute biosasays were greater than l000/a. Though some toxic effects were noted inthe chronic tests, of the higher salinity concentrate, mixing and dilution of the concentrate effluent with the receiving water should eliminate any potential effects in the Gulf of Mexico. Furthermore, the test indicator species, which are very sensitive organisms, showed a high degree of tolerance and adaptability to the higher concentration of salinity. As indicated in FDEP’s letter dated April 12,1995 (Appendix A), “In conclusion, based on the information and analysis provided by the Southwest Florida Water Management District in conformance with the agreed-upon Plan of Study, the Department agrees the results indicate that a seawater concentrate discharge can be managed to meet the Department’s water quality standards and is manageable and perxnittable with appropriate conditions under current DEP point source discharge criteria.”


Title:
Growth of Membrane Technology— National Perspective


Title:
Irrigation with membrane plant concentrate, Fort Myers, Florida, USDA: Case study

Abstract:
The use of irrigation as the primary disposal method becomes more difficult as the salinity and TDS of the feedwaters increase beyond the freshwater levels. Crop tolerances to specific ions become of greater concern. Blending with suitable irrigation water supplies is a means of decreasing the applied salinity and TDS concentrations. The use of membrane softening concentrate as an irrigation supply appears feasible for the City of Fort Myers, based on generalized irrigation guidelines and applicable state water quality criteria.


Title:
Draft environmental impact report for the Montery Peninsula Water Management District near-term desalination project


Author:
El Din, A.M.S.,  S. Aziz, and B. Makkawi

Title:
Electricity and water production in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi and its impact  on the environment.


Title:
Modeling of Brine Disposal in Oceans.  CEC Report CR-102486

Publication:
The Electric Power Research Institute Community Environmental Center.  Washington University, St. Louis Missouri.  June 1994.

Abstract:
As a result of increased interest by US utilities and water agencies in seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO), EPRI sponsored a program to evaluate the behavior and effects of brine concentrate discharges from desalination plants to the ocean. Particular interest is for both offshore submerged discharges for large desalination plants (15-50 MGD) and nearshore surface discharges for small desalination plants (1-15 MGD). Previous seawater distillation systems with recovery ratios of 10-20% and temperature elevations of 10 degrees C have brine discharges with positive buoyancy and rising plume effluents. The trend towards SWRO with recovery ratios up to 50% poses a potential problem because the dense SWRO brine sinks rapidly to the ocean floor and may threaten the benthic environment. Many studies have been done on the discharge of positively buoyant effluents in the ocean; however, little work has been done on the behavior and effects of negatively buoyant effluents including brine discharges. US EPA discharge rules were adopted to classify brine discharge, and suggestions were made for mixing zone definitions and dilution criteria based on the tolerance of biota to higher salinities. Under the EPRI program the CORMIX computer code was extended to B-CORMIX (Brine-CORMIX) to enable the modeling of both submerged and surface brine discharges. The CORMIX/B-CORMIX family codes was used to investigate several brine discharge scenarios, including pure brine and brine-discharged with wastewater. The principal conclusions of this study are: Dense brine discharges can impact the benthic environment; An effluent dilution to 1 ppt above ambient is a conservative guideline for initial studies to limit the benthic impact; however, site specific impact evaluations should be performed; The dilution of dense brine effluents to 1 ppt above the ambient is achievable in reasonable distances from the discharge point; The CORMIX/B-CORMIX codes can be used to predict the dispersion of concentrated brine discharges and co-discharge options; Co-discharges appear beneficial.


Title:
Inland Concentrate Disposal: A Review of All the Technologies Currently in Use for the Disposal of Desalination Concentrates in Inland Regions

Abstract:
Development of inland desalination operations in the U.S. (primarily in Florida and California) is constrained by the availability of environmentally safe methods for disposing reject concentrates. Concentrates can have salinity levels over 50,000 ppm as well as concentrated toxic substances. The main concern is that such concentrates can leach into current or future water sources. Current disposal practices such as ocean disposal, public sewer disposal, deep well injection and evaporation pond solidification are discussed. Each of these has some disadvantage which impacts expansion. A new approach in southern California involves construction of parallel, non-reclaimable sewer lines or "interceptors" for concentrates and other industrial wastes. This approach, which could be expanded to applications in other parts of California as well as Florida, enables inland generated concentrates to be safely disposed of in the ocean. In addition to interceptors, techniques of concentrate volume reduction are discussed which could extend current disposal operations. Virtually all new or improved methods for disposal will add to the effective cost of new water sources.


Title:
Technologies for Improving Water Desalination

Abstract:
Due to the high salinity of the Colorado River, the major water source for much of the Southwest, a study was conducted to compare capacitive deionization (CDI) with carbon aerogel and reverse osmosis (RO) for salinity reduction. Conventional treatment (flocculation, sedimentation, and dual media filtration), ozone and biologically active filters, and microfiltration (MF) as the pretreatment step were the methods used in the comparison. This Technical Brief presents the details of this study: a summary, background, technology overview, current status of research, the findings based on the results to date, and ongoing research activities.


Title:
Modeling of Brine Disposal in Oceans: A Personal-Computer-Based Modeling Program to Predict the Dilution and Plume Trajectory of Discharging Brine into the Ocean


Title:
Demonstration of environmental and economic viability of seawater desalination in Southwest Florida

Abstract:
The cost of obtaining environmental approvals represents a financial risk to coastal projects in Florida and elsewhere in the U.S. The risk is particularly high when the proposed coastal activity is a precedent setting activity such as dense brine disposal along the West Florida Gulf. Therefore, a first-of-a-kind demonstration project is proposed as a joint collaboration between SWFWMD, U.S. EPA, EPRI, WCRWSA and the proposed host, TECO, to obtain permits and build a representative SWRO plant and demonstrate that reject brine can be safely dispersed into Gulf waters while not imposing a significantly adverse impact on plant economics. The proposed project will be implemented by the EPRI Desalination Committee on behalf of the sponsors, SWFWMD, WCRWSA, TECO and U.S. EPA. The proposed site will be located on Tampa Bay contiguous with the Big Bend 1,800 MWe power station, owned and operated by Tampa Electric Company (TECO). Tampa Bay is a large shallow bay with a modest rate of flushing. This likely will limit the size of SWRO plant that can be sited on the bay. At the same time it will represent a rigorous test case for brine disposal in the Gulf waters.


Title:
Desalination Study of Florida Power & Light Plants

Abstract:
This report documents a project sponsored jointly by EPRI and Florida Power&Light (FPL) to determine the viability of converting existing power plants to large-scale, dual-purpose cogeneration of power and fresh water from desalination. Of four desalination processes studied, reverse osmosis offered the lowest product water cost.


Title:
Technologies for the Desalination of Brackish Water and Seawater

Abstract:
This TechCommentary describes and compares various technology applications for brackish or seawater desalination. A typical desalination process is Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR). This application employs a membrane process for desalinating water with 2,000 parts per million (ppm) total disolved solids (TDS) or less as per Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines. It is concluded that the application of appropriate technology is dependent upon the characteristics of the feed water and the desired quality of the product water. However, EDR was the selected desalination process overall, because the product water meets or exceeds EPA drinking water guidelines. Desalination of seawater and brackish water is described, the technology applications are diagrammed in figures and schematics, and the various technology applications are compared in two tables. Two case studies conducted in Robinson, Texas and in Sherman, Texas are also presented in this document.


Title:
B-Cormix Verification.  E&ES Project No. 2681.0122, The Electric Power Research Institute Desalination & Water Reuse Committee 1993-1994  Research Projects

Publication:
The Electric Power Research Institute Community Environmental Center.  Washington University, St. Louis Missouri.  December 1994


Title:
VARI-RO (TM) Desalting Pilot Plant Testing and Evaluation


Title:
Membrane Pretreatment of Reclaimed Wastewater for Reverse Osmosis Desalination


Title:
A landscape-level method to assess estuarine impacts of freshwater inflow alterations. Treat, S.F (editor)

Publication:
Proceedings, Tampa Bay Area Scientific Information Symposium 3:  Applying Our Knowledge.  October 1996.  Tampa, Fl.  396 pp.


Author:
European Conference on Desalination and the Environment

Title:
European Conference on Desalination and the Environment

Publication:
Amsterdam : Elsevier Science, V. 3  Desalination v. 124-126.  9-12 November 1999, Las Palmas, Gran Canaria

Abstract:
Thomas Hoepner (Germany), A procedure for environmental impact assessments (EIA), for seawater desalination plants; Francis Rillaerts (Belgium), Concessions in the water sector; Naim H. Afgan, Mohammad Darwish and Maria G. Carvalho (Portugal), Sustainability assessment of desalination plants for water production Ted Darton (UK), RO plant experiences with high silica waters in the Canary Islands; Jasbir S. Gill (USA), A novel inhibitor for scale control in water desalination; Ingrida Bremere, Maria Kennedy, Peter Michel, Rani van Emmerik, Geert-Jan Witkamp and Jan Schippers (The Netherlands), Controlling scaling in membrane filtration systems using a desupersaturation unit; Suresh Patel and Michael A. Finan (UK), New antifoulants for deposit control in MSF and MED plants; JohnW. Oldfleld and Brian Todd (UK), Technical and economic aspects of stainless steels in MSF desalination plants; Jan Olsson and Keith Minnich (Sweden), Solid stainless steel for MSF once-through plants; K. Habib (Kuwait), Localized corrosion of copper alloys by optical interferometry and other techniques; Corrado Sommariva, Donato Pinciroli, Elio Tolle and R. Adinolfi (Italy), Optimization of material selection for evaporative desalination plants in order to achieve the highest cost-benefit ratio;   K.A. Iurash, V.V. Nikonenko, N.D. Pismenskaya, V.I. Zabolotsky and E.I. Volodina (Russia), Dependence of salt and water ion fluxes through ion-exchange membranes under electrodiaslysis on the ion-exchange bed composition, Gael Ducom and Corinne Cabassud (France), Interests and limitations of nanofiltration for the removal of volatile organic compounds in drinking water production, L. Melnik, O. Vysotskaja and B. Kornilovich (Ukraine), Boron behavior during desalination of sea and underground water by electrodialysis, Nissim Nadav (Israel), Boron removal from seawater reverse osmosis permeate utilizing selective ion exchange resin, Paula Alexandra Marques, Helena Maria Pinheiro, Jose Antonio Teixeira and Maria Fernanda Rosal (Portugal), Removal efficiency of Cu2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+ by waste brewery biomass: pH and cation association effects, Adil Al Radif (Canada), Integrated water resources management (IWRM), : an approach to face the challenges of the next century and to avert future crises, Willem Chr. Barendsen (Netherlands Antilles), Business in the Caribbean and fast track B.O.O.M. desalting plants and unique features, Mousa S. Mohsen and Odeh R. Al-Jayyousi (Jordan), Brackish water desalination: an alternative for water supply enhancement in Jordan, S. Belfer, J. Gilron and O. Kedem (Israel), Characterization of commercial RO and UF modified and fouled membrane by means of ATR/FTIR, V.S. Soldatov, A.A. Shunkevich, I.S. Elinson, Jurgen Johann and Helmut Iraushek (Belarus), Chemically active textile materials as efficient means for water purification, Ick-Tae Yeom, Yoo-Mi Nah and Kyu-Hong Ahn (Korea), Treatment of household wastewater using an intermittently aerated membrane bioreactor, V. Mavrov, H. Chmiel, B. Heitele and F. Roegener (Germany), Desalination of surface water to industrial water with lower impact on the environment. Part 4: Treatment of effluents from water desalination stages for reuse and balance of the new technological concept for water desalination, Per Tomani and Anu Seisto (Sweden), Separation methods for closed-loop manufacture of bleached kraft pulp - overview of an EU project, Fasil A. Abilov, Azer G. Orudjev and R. Lange (Azerbajan), Optimization of oil-containing wastewater treatment processes, S.C.J.M. van Hoof, A. Hashim and A.J. Kordes (The Netherlands), The effect of ultrafiltration as pretreatment to reverse osmosis in wastewater reuse and seawater desalination applications, Alessandra Criscuoli and Enrico Drioli (Italy), Energetic and exergetic analysis of an integrated membrane desalination system, M. Abdel-Jawad, S. Ebrahim and S. Al-Shammari (Kuwait), Advanced technologies for municipal wastewater purification: technical and economic assessment, Felix Buhrmann, Mike van der Waldt, Dirk Hanekom and Fiona Finlayson (South Africa), Treatment of industrial waste water for reuse, Manuel P. del Pino and Bruce Durham (Spain), Wastewater reuse through dual-membrane processes: opportunities for sustainable water resources, Kyu-Hong Ahn, Ho-Young Cha and Kyung-Guen Song (Korea), Retrofitting municipal sewage treatment plant using an innovative membrane-bioreactor system, Gianpiero Nosenzo, Mario Mignani and Alessio Gualdi (Italy), Innovative ultrafiltration for waste water reuse, J.A. Redondo and A.Casanas (Germany), Mature and novel desalination experiences with the FILMTEC SW30HR-380 and SW30HR-320 elements. Technical-economical review, Masaru Kurihara, Hiroyuki Yamamura and Takayuki Nakanishi (Japan), High recovery / high pressure RO membranes for brine conversion SWRO process development and its performance data; Peter Moss and Jose Manrique de Lara y Gil (UK), Twenty-five years of desalination in the Canary Islands: a historical review of the application of reverse osmosis using case studies and operational experience; N. Marsh, J. Howard, Fiona Finlayson and Stefan Rybar (UK), SWRO - the largest plant in British waters; Hwee J. See, V.S. Vassiliadis and D.I. Wilson (UK), Optimisation of membrane regeneration scheduling in reverse osmosis networks for seawater desalination; Aldo Munoz Elguera, Alex Nunez and Masaki Nishida (Japan), Experimental test of TOYOBO membranes for seawater desalination at Las Palmas, Spain; Marc Altman,Raphael Semiat and David Hasson (Israel), Removal of organic foulants from feed waters by dynamic membranes; Berta Tenzer, Avner Adin and Menachem Priel (Israel), Sea water filtration for fouling prevention under stormy conditions; A. Teuler, K. Glucina and J.M. Laine (France), Assessment of UF pretreatment prior RO membranes for seawater desalination; C. Robert Reiss, Jim S. Taylor and Cristophe Robert (USA), Surface water treatment using nanofiltration - pilot testing results and design considerations;   W. Pergande (USA), Brackish and seawater pretreatment using an ultrafiltration hydrofilic¨ membrane, R.S. Adhikari and Ashvini Kumar (India), Cost optimization studies on a multi-stage stacked tray solar still, I. Houcine, F. Ben Jemaa, M.H. Chahbani and M. Maalej (Tunisia), Renewable energy sources for water desalting in Tunisia, L. Garcia-Rodriguez and C. Gomez-Camacho (Spain), Conditions for economical benefits of the use of solar energy in multistage flash distillation, L. Garcia-Rodriguez, A.I. Palmero-Marrero and Gomez-Camacho (Spain), Application of direct steam generation into a solar parabolic trough collector to multieffect distillation, Karim Bourouni, Jean Claude Deronzier and Lounes Tadrist (France), Experimentation and modelling of an innovative geothermal desalination unit, Willard D. Childs, Ali E. Dabiri, Hilal A. Al-Hinai and Hussein A. Abdullah (USA), VARI-RO solar-powered desalting technology, Peter Geisler, Wolfgang Krumm and Thomas Peters (Germany), Optimization of the energy demand of reverse osmosis with a pressure-exchange system, Chip Harris (USA), Energy recovery for membrane desalination, Ralph Hofert (Germany), Variable speed turbo couplings used as pump drive in desalination plants, Neil Wade, John Willis and Jim McSorley (UK), The Taweelah A2 independent water and power project, Jacques de Gunzbourg and Dominique Larger (France), Cogeneration applied to very high efficiency thermal seawater desalination plants, A. Korn, M Bisanz and H. Ludwig (Germany), Privatization of dual-purpose seawater desalination and power plants - structures, procedures and prospects for the future, M.A.K. Al-Sofi, A.M. Hassan, O.A. Hamad, G.M. Mustafa, A.G.I. Dalvi and M.N.M. Kither (Saudi Arabia), Means and merits of higher temperature operation in dual-purpose plants, M.J. Safi and A. Korchani (Tunisia), Cogeneration applied to water desalination: Simulation of differnt technologies, Juan Maria Sanchez, Eolo Gonzalez and Michael Tramer (Spain), Telde Desalination Plant; Osamah Al-Hawaj (Kuwait), A study and comparison of plate and tubular evaporators, John B. Tonner, Steen Hinge and Carlos Legorreta (Denmark), Plate heat exchangers - the new trend in thermal desalination; Yehia M. El-Sayed (USA), Thermoeconomics of some options of large mechanical vapor compression units, Hisham T. El-Dessouky and Hisham M Ettouney (Kuwait), Multiple-effect evaporation desalination systems: thermal analysis, Hisham M. Ettouney and Hisham T. El-Dessouky (Kuwait), A simulator for thermal desalination processes, D. Abdessemed, G. Nezzal and R. Ben Aim (France), Treatment of wastewater by ultrafiltration; Kyu-Hong Ahn and Kyung-Guen Song (Korea), Treatment of domestic wastewater using microfiltration for reuse of wastewater; Imad Alatiqi, Hisham Ettouney and Hisham El-Dessouky (Kuwait), Process control in water desalination industry: an overview; Nader M. Al-Bastaki and Abderrahim Abbas (Bahrain), Modeling an industrial reverse osmosis unit; Mahmoud S. Al-Hadidi (Jordan), Brackish water management and use in Jordan; M. Al-Shammiri and M. Safar (Kuwait), Multi-effect distillation plants: state of the art; M.A.K. Al-Sofi (Saudi Arabia), Fouling phenomena in multi stage flash (MSF), distillers; S.Yu. Bashtan, V.V. Goncharuk, R.D. Chebotareva, V.N. Belyakov, V.M. Linkov (Ukraine), Production of sodium hypochlorite in an electrolyser equipped with a ceramic membrane; B. Benayada, Daddi Oubekka Leila (Algeria), UV absorption cross sections for acetates; Chris Dotremont, Bart Molenberghs, Wim Doyen, Paul Bielen and Koen Huysman (Belgium), The recovery of backwash water from sand filters by ultrafiltration; Sergio O. Fernandez, Jorge A. Rodriguez and Antonio Perez Padilla (Argentina), Removal concentration and desalination of bovine seroalbumin (BSA), with membrane technology;   V. Flores and C. Cabassud (France), A hybrid membrane process for Cu(II), removal from industrial wastewaters. Comparison with a conventional process system, L. Garcia-Rodriguez and C. Gomez-Camacho (Spain), Preliminary design and cost analysis of a solar distillation system, A. Gomez Gotor, Salama I. Bachir and O. Perez Baez (Spain), Transport characterisation in flat reverse osmosis membranes: Utilisation of the Kimura Sourirajan analysis method for the determination of mass transfer coefficient K, transport parameter Dam/Kd and permeability constant A, Caroliene M. Guijt, Imre G. Racz, Jan Willem van Heuven, Tom Reith and Andre B. de Haan (The Netherlands), Modelling of a transmembrane evaporation module for desalination of seawater, Chip Harris (USA), Construction and commissioning for membrane desalting; T. Hodgkiess and D. Mantzavinos (UK), Corrosion of copper-nickel alloys in pure water, A.L. Iordanskii, P.P. Kamaev, A.A. Ol'khov, A.M. Wasserman (Russia), Water transport phenomena in 'green' and 'petrochemical' polymers. Differences and similarities, A. Jernqvist, M. Jernqvist and G. Aly (Sweden), Simulation of thermal desalination processes, Pavel P. Kamaev, Alexey L. Iordanskii, Israil I. Aliev, Alexander M. Wasserman and Urs Hanggi (Russia), Transport water and molecular mobility in novel barrier membranes with different morphology features, R. Klischenko, B. Kornilovich, R. Chebotaryova and V. Linkov (Ukraine), Purification of galvanic sewage from metals by electrodialysis, T.V. Knyazkova and A.A. Maynarovich (Ukraine), Recognition of membrane fouling: testing of theoretical approaches with data on NF of salt solutions containing a low molecular weight surfactant as a foulant, Y.A. Kuzma-Kichta, A.S. Sedlov, A.I. Abramov, Y.A. Shkondin, D.V. Buyakov, G.V. Presnov and A.A. Borisov (Russia), Improvement of evaporating installations by means of heat transfer enhancement in vapour generating tubes, Malgorzata Kabsch-Korbutowicz, Katarzyna Majewska-Nowak and Tomasz Winnicki (Poland), Analysis of membrane fouling in the treatment of water solutions containing humic acids and mineral salts, Katarzyna Majewska-Nowak, Malgorzata Kabsch-Korbutowicz and Tomasz Winnicki (Poland), The effect of gas bubble flow on ultrafiltration efficiency, L. Martinez-Diez, F.J. Florido-Diaz and M.I. Vazquez-Gonzaez (Spain), Study of evaporation efficiency in membrane distillation, Ali Nemdili and Dieter-Heinz Hellmann (Germany), The requirements to successful centrifugal pump application for desalination and power plant processes, V.V. Nikonenko, A.G. Istoshin, M.Kh. Urtenov, V.I. Zabolotskv, C. Larchet and J. Benzaria (Russia), Analysis of electrodialysis water desalination costs by convective-diffusion model, Paolo Pacenti, Mario de Gerloni, Mario Reali, David Chiaramonti, Sven O. Gartner, Peter Helm and Michael Stohr (Italy), Submarine seawater reverse osmosis desalination system, Antonio Perez Padilla and Eduardo L. Tavani (Argentina), Treatment of an industrial effluent by reverse osmosis, Alexei G. Pervov (Russia), A simplified RO process design based on understanding of fouling mechanisms, J.A. Redondo (Germany), Improve RO system performance and reduce operating cost with FILMTEC fouling resistant (FR), elements, A.S. Sedlov, V.V. Shischenko, V.F. Ghidkih, R.M. Chasiachmetov and Y.I. Pichushkin (Russia), Small-waste technology of water desalination at thermal power stations, R. Sheikholeslami and S. Tan (Australia), Effects of water quality on silica fouling of desalination plants, V.V. Slesarenko (Russia), Desalination plant with absorption heat pump for power station, Vladimir N. Slesarenko (Russia), Intensification of the regime of thin film desalination plants, J. Castelblanque and F. Salimbeni (Switzerland), Application of membrane systems for COD removal and reuse of waste water from anaerobic digestors, Peter J. Gowin and Toshio Konishi (Austria), Nuclear seawater desalination - IAEA activities and economic evaluation for southern Europe.


Title:
Desalting residuals: A problem or a beneficial resource?

Publication:
Desalination vol. 102, no. 1 pp. 107-117; Proceedings of the 1994 biennial conference and exposition.  Membrane and desalting technologies

Abstract:
The Sweetwater Authority, which serves 160,000 people in southern San Diego County, has adopted a long-range goal to be less dependent on imported supplies, especially in water-short years. The Authority is actively developing a program of brackish groundwater and urban runoff demineralization. Various options have been evaluated for disposal or reuse of the concentrate from the proposed desalination plant. These include: 1) discharge to San Diego Bay, 2) reuse in coastal wetlands, 3) discharge to existing or proposed sewer networks, and 4) discharge through deep well injection. Discharge to San Diego Bay may have regulatory constraints which would be imposed by the San Diego Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB). A unique opportunity exists to utilize concentrate for beneficial uses for wetland habitat development such as brackish water wetlands within the Sweetwater Marsh National Wildlife Refuge (NWR). The NWR has expressed an interest in utilizing the concentrate as a continuous water supply. Concentrate disposal into the City of San Diego sewer system could only occur through conveyance lines which will not convey sewage to proposed reclamation facilities. Injection of concentrate into the San Diego Formation could have a beneficial effect to the quality of the groundwater in the San Diego formation if it occurs close to the coast but may have an adverse impact on inland groundwater. The least expensive alternative is to discharge concentrate into San Diego Bay, however, concentrate recycling would be beneficial to the natural environment. Brackish coastal wetlands can serve as receiving waters for the concentrate. This option is somewhat more costly but can provide possibilities for mitigation of project environmental impacts.


Author:
Everesta W.R. , I.C. Watsonb and D. MacLainc

Title:
Groundwater reclamation by innovative desalting in Orange County, California.

Publication:
Desalination V. 117:(1-3).   Pp. 197-202.  September 1998


Title:
Desalination: supply opportunities for the present and future

Abstract:
The November 23, 1993, edition of the Kiplinger’s Florida Newsletter wrote “...Florida will run out of inexpensive water as population grows.. .Means sweeping changes in the way water is regulated lie ahead.. .Will affect all users.. .It will be a monumental struggle.” This prediction has been most apparent in the Tampa Bay area as growing coastal communities are seeking additional water with cost being the dominating factor in the decision making process. The lack of available water in coastal areas due to saltwater intrusion has forced these growing communities to seek water from inland counties that have not as yet experienced the demands of growth. The largest potable water user in the region, Pinellas County, essentially exhausted its water supply decades ago by overdrafting the groundwater system until saltwater contaminated the freshwater supply. The county then sought water by transferring water from adjacent counties. This method of water supply development became very contentious and red to the famous “water wars” of Tampa Bay. The political and legal battles ended through intervention by the Governor of Florida and the Florida Legislature which enacted the West Coast Regional Water Supply Authority (Authority). In response to a mounting concern for increased water demands in the face of regional environmental degradation from overdrafting the hydrologic system, the Southwest Florida Water Management District (District) initiated a very aggressive program to evaluate and take action to address the various water management concerns. As the process evolved, the investigations pointed toward many problems that would have to be resolved to meet District rules and Florida Statutes as they pertain specifically to adverse environmental impacts. The future needs for water in the Tampa Bay area will steadily increase with time, and environmentally-compatible solutions must be found to meet the needs for sustainable growth. The expedited development of alternative water supplies is critical to solving the water supply issues in Tampa Bay. It is the District’s position that seawater desalination holds great potential to meet the current and future needs for Tampa Bay when all issues are given full consideration. Public supply needs can be generally met through the traditional sources of ground or surface water. The issue becomes more complex when those sources have been exhausted especially in growing coastal communities. Future demand must then be met through conservation of existing resources, importation of water or development of non-traditional sources.


Author:
Fleischer, E. J., Sanders, F. A., Palen, G. M., and Sullivan, E. C.

Title:
Successful Permitting for the Discharge of Membrane Concentrate  from a Large Municipal Reverse Osmosis Plant: the City of Chesapeake Experience

Publication:
1996 American Desalting Association Biennial Conference and Exposition

Abstract:
The City of Chesapeake’s Northwest River Water Treatment Plant (WTP) can supply up to 10 million gallons per day (mgd) of potable water from its surface water source. The raw water contains high concentrations of total organic carbon (TOC) and manganese, is low in alkalinity, and often exhibits a low pH. Saltwater intrusion from nearby Currituck Sound and proposed regulations for the control of disinfection by-products (DBPs) have caused the City to turn to membrane treatment of both surface and brackish groundwater as a solution to its treatment and supply problems. Two pilot tests were conducted to confirm the feasibility of membrane treatment for removing DBP precursors and desalting the surface water and brackish groundwater sources. One of the City’s major objectives was to acquire the Virginia Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (VPDES} permit for the discharge of membrane concentrate and to ensure that the limits contained in the permit were achievable before proceeding with the treatment plant upgrade and development of the brackish water supply. The concentrate flowstream will be pumped a distance of 15 miles to a nearby estuary. The membrane concentrate from each pilot test was characterized using “clean sampling and analysis” techniques to determine that the concentrate flowstream would not violate any Virginia Water Quality Standards. Acute and chronic toxicity tests also were performed. A permit for the discharge of up to 4.8 mgd of concentrate was acquired with only minimal restrictions. However, the quality of the concentrate will need to be managed in a similar manner to that of the finished water stream because of discharge limitations on certain constituents, such as total dissolved solids (TDS), ammonia, phosphorus. dissolved oxygen, foam, and effluent toxicity.


Abstract:
02/17/1999 About 30 people showed up for the presentations of proposed desalination projects at Florida Power's Anclote plant in Pasco and the Big Bend plant in Hillsborough.* According to the Tampa Tribune, attendees remain skeptical about whether Tampa Bay needs a Desal project and/or are worried about the possible environmental harm the projects will bring by extra salt discharge.  Its pretty clear that Tampa Bay needs an alternate source of water to stop relying on groundwater pumping which is blamed for drying lakes and other environmental damage. According to Don Lindeman, Tampa Bay Water project manager, the potential for environmental damage caused by desalination is insignificant. The extracted salt will be diluted prior to discharge.


Author:
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Laboratories

Title:
Protocols for determining major-seawater-ion toxicity in membrane-technology water-treatment concentrate

Publication:
Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Laboratories

Abstract:
This document contains the results of a study to determine methods for identifying toxicity to marine animals resulting from an 'imbalance' of the major seawater ions. The report includes the rationale for the method, the results of the study, and the methods allowing one to determine whether toxicity in a sample results solely from major seawater ion imbalance, solely from 'other' toxics, or from a combination of the two causes.


Author:
Frithsen, J.B., S.P. Schreiner, and D.E. Stebel, and R.M. Laljani, D.T. Logan, and H.W. Zarbock

Title:
Final Report: Chemical Contaminants in the Tampa Bay Estuary: A summary of distribution and inputs.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #01-95.  Prepared by:  Versar, Inc. and Coastal Environmental Services, Inc.


Author:
Furnas, M.J., T.J. Smayda, and C.R. Tomas

Title:
Persistent dinoflagellate blooms in a small marine cove:  I. Effects of wind and tidal currents.


Title:
Persistent dinoflagellate blooms in a small marine cove:  II. Tidal fluxes of nutrients and phytoplankton.


Author:
Galperin, B., A.F. Blumberg, and R.H. Weisberg.

Title:
A time-dependent three-dimensional model of circulation in Tampa Bay.  In: Tampa Basis 2, Treat, S.F.; Clark, P.A. editors.

Publication:
Proceedings, Tampa Bay Area Scientific Information Symposium 2.  February 1991.  Tampa, Fl.  528 pp.


Author:
Garrott, R.A. B.B. Ackerman, J.R.Carey, D.M. Heisey, J.E. Reynolds III, and J.R. Wilcox

Title:
Assessment of trends in sizes of manatee population at several Florida aggregation sites. (Edited by O'Shea, T.J., B.B. Ackerman, and H.F. Percival)

Publication:
Population Biology of the Florida Manatee.  U.S. Dept. of the Interior, National Biological Service, Washington, D.C.


Author:
General Atomics, Bechtel National Inc., and Gas-Cooled Reactor Associates

Title:
MHTGR desalination for Southern California


Title:
Optimized brackish water desalination  plants with minimum impact on the  environment.

Publication:
Desalination V. 108:(1-3).   Pp. 19-26.  February 1997.

Abstract:
Mekorot's activities and achievements in the implementation of RO technology to solve water supply and quality problems were reviewed. Two design concepts were applied: optimal usage of basic resources for large capacity systems, and simplicity in design and operation for small systems at remote locations. Special efforts are directed to minimize negative impacts on the environment. Existing systems of both large and small capacities, along with systems under design are being reviewed, including cost breakdown and analysis. The large capacity systems are characterized by high product recovery and low specific energy consumption. In two specific cases brine disposal cost has a negative value. In one case, the brine is used for raw seawater blending for a SWRO plant, and in another case, concentrating the brackish source via desalination facilitates the solution of an environmental problem.


Title:
Regulatory Investigation and Cost Analysis of Concentrate Disposal From Membrane Plants

Publication:
M.S. thesis, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Fla


Title:
A Citizen’s Handbook on Groundwater Protection

Publication:
New York: Natural Resources Defense Council


Title:
Trace metal status of Tampa Bay sediments.

Publication:
Environmental Protection Commission of Hillsborough County, Tampa, FL.  73 pp.


Title:
Status of Tampa Bay sediments:  Contamination by organochlorine pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls.  1993 & 1995-1996.

Publication:
Environmental Protection Commission of Hillsborough County, Tampa, FL.


Title:
Technical Report:  A synoptic survey of the benthic macroinvertebrates of the Boca Ceiga Bay Estuarine System (Pinellas County, Florida) 1995.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program, St. Petersburg, FL. TBNEP #02-96.  34 pp.


Title:
Technical Report:  Benthic habitat status of the Little Manatee River Estuary (1996-1998).


Title:
Technical Report:  Benthic habitat status of the Lower Alafia River Estuary (1995-1998).


Title:
Technical Report:  Benthic habitat status of the Lower Hillsborough River Estuary (1995-1998).


Title:
Technical Report:  Benthic habitat status of the Palm River Estuary (1995-1998).


Title:
Habitat trends and fisheries in Tampa and Sarasota Bays.


Title:
Oceanic Intrusion: One possible initiation mechanism of Red Tide Blooms on the West Coast of Florida


Author:
Hammond, M. A.; Blake, N. J.; Dye, C. W.; Hallock-Muller, P.; Luther, M. E.; Tomasko, D. A.; Vargo, G.

Title:
Effects of disposal of seawater desalination discharges on near shore benthic communities

Publication:
Southwest Florida Water Management District and University of South Florida

Abstract:
Desalination is a water treatment method that removes salts from brackish water or seawater and is most commonly accomplished by a thermal or membrane process. Both processes result in two streams; a product or fresh water stream, and a concentrate or brine stream that is discarded. Worldwide, as of 1995 there were 11,066 desalination plants with a total capacity of more than 5.4 billion gallons (20.4 million cubic meters) of fresh water per day, installed or contracted (IDA 1996). The Southwest Florida Water Management District (District) began its research on the environmental effects of desalting concentrates because of a lack of such studies, and initially cofunded research with the Electric Power Research Institute. The District conducted a joint study with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) to determine if the discharge from a seawater RO facility could meet Florida water quality standards. Acute and chronic toxicity bioassays using standard marine test organisms (Mysidopsis bahia, a shrimp, and Menidia beryllina,the inland silverside), show that state water quality standards can be met (Dye et al. 1995). The results show that by blending the RO concentrate with three parts seawater, there is no observable effect to the test organisms with respect to growth, reproduction, and survival. The results of the joint District/FDEP study was based on a bench-scale RO unit and laboratory toxicity tests. Therefore, the District initiated this study to further document the structure and health, under actual field conditions, of the benthic communities within the discharge zone of an operating seawater RO facility. The objective of the study was to provide the evidence necessary to adequately predict effects from the concentrate discharge in areas such as west-central Florida. The study consisted of two phases, Phase One, study site selection, and Phase Two, performing a detaliled investigation. Based on field surveys and observations at six seawater RO facilities, one operating for approximately 20 years, the RO concentrate was rapidly dispersed to background salinities within a relatively small area, and showed no sign of salinity build-up. Additionally, the study at the Antigua site showed no obvious effects of the concentrate on the benthic or pelagic biological communities present in the discharge zone of the plant. Intensive water quality sampling suggests that temperature (which is higher in the discharge) return to background levels within 2 to 6 meters from the end of the discharge pipe. Also, salinity is the best “tracer” of the spatial influence of the plume, with elevated salinities found up to 10 meters and beyond for those transects where water depth increases with increased distance from the end of the discharge pipe. The higher salinity concentrate discharge seems to dissipate mostly as a density-driven plume.


Title:
Desalination  research - current needs and approaches - a U.S. perspective.


Title:
Effects of temperature and salinity on egg hatching and larval ssurvival of Red Drum, Sciaenops ocellata.

Publication:
U.S. Natl. Mar. Fish. Sev. Fish. Bull. 79(3):569


Title:
Elements of environmental impact  studies on coastal  desalination  plants.

Publication:
Desalination V. 108:(1-3).   Pp. 11-18.  February 1997.

Abstract:
Desalination plants provide a basic need to population, industry and agriculture. This seems sometime to evoke the impression that desalination plants are per se environmentally compatible. Even in fundamental texts environmental aspects are often missing. The objective of this paper is to analyse the imaginable environmental impacts of desalination plants on coastal zone ecosystems. We present a general frame for environmental impact studies derived from the experience gained from work on a distinct desalination plant. Among the impacts originating from a desalination plant are those restricted to the construction phase and those bound to the operation phase. Impacts start with the changed land-use, proceed to visual and acoustic disturbance and extent to the emissions to water and atmosphere and to the potential damages of the target environment. The extent of the damages depends on the sensitivity of the environment. After a discussion of the environmental, the chemical and the biological context, the emissions of desalination plants into the atmosphere and into the sea are examined. The potential hazards from these loads are discussed. At the side of the target environment, typical sub-ecosystems are selected and their sensitivity is assessed. Finally, sub-ecosystems are ranked according to sensitivity forming a scale ranging from a high-energy oceanic coast of low sensitivity to a mangrove coast of very high sensitivity.


Title:
Alternative water supply grants program C-7793: reverse osmosis membrane recovery program

Publication:
West Palm Beach, FL: Kimley-Horn & Associates

Abstract:
In accordance with the South Florida Water Management District’s (SFWMD) Alternate Water Supply Grant Program, the SFWMD provided cost sharing considerations to the Town of Jupiter Water Utilities Department for efforts to implement a reverse osmosis (RO) membrane recovery system program. The Town’s RO water treatment plant currently operates at a 75% recovery rate, meaning three quarters gallon of drinking water is recovered from each gallon of brackish source water withdrawn from the Floridan Aquifer. This membrane recovery system program is designed to investigate producing additional drinking water from that same gallon of brackish source water. A pilot unit designed to simulate the Town’s existing full scale RO trains was operated to evaluate membrane performance and plant operating parameters at increased recovery rates up to 83%. Increasing the recovery rate to 83% would reduce the annual withdrawal from the Floridan Aquifer, and conserve 292 million gallons of raw water while producing the same quantity and quality of finished water. The focus of increased membrane recovery is to optimize plant performance and to reduce the consumption of raw water from the Floridan Aquifer, but in addition to reducing treatment costs associated with alternative water sources, this program will also provide in-depth data on membrane performance, plant operating data and concentrate disposal options.


Title:
RODES Reverse Osmosis System Design Computer Program Manual


Title:
2000 IDA Worldwide Desalting Plants Inventory Report No. 16

Publication:
Wangnick Consultion GMBH, Germany.  June 1996.  295p.

Abstract:
Wangnick Consulting maintains a permanent desalting plants inventory and publishes the results biennially in co-operation with the International Desalination Association, as the IDA Worldwide Desalting Plants Inventory Report. Thus far, fifteen reports have been published, with the latest report having data through the end of 1997. The latest report has some 280 pages with various listings, graphs, and breakdowns. By 31st December 1997, a total of 12,451 desalting units (of a unit size of 100 m3/d or more) with a total capacity of 22,735,000 m3/d (5,008 MIGPD = 6,007 MUSGPD) had been installed or contracted worldwide. Non-seawater desalination plants contributed with 9,400,000 m3/d, whereas the capacity of the seawater desalination plants reached 13,300,000 m3/d.


Title:
Expert system for mixing zone analysis of aqueous discharges (CORMIX1)

Publication:
Ithaca, NY: DeFrees Hydraulics Laboratory, Cornell University

Abstract:
CORMIX1 deals with submerged, single port discharges of aqueous and conventional pollutants into rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters, as well as the limitating case of stagnant water bodies, such as lakes or reservoirs. In several applications, the expert system has produced results as accurate as mathematically more complex models. The system is currently being extended to include stratified receiving waters, negatively buoyant discharges, and the effect of bottom attachment of the discharge plume.


Author:
Karlen, D., S. Grabe, T. Perkins, W. Lyons, G. Blanchard

Title:
Tampa Bay benthos:  Species Composition of Mollusks and polychaetes, 1963 vs. 1993-1995.  Treat, S.F (editor)


Title:
Technical Report:  A synoptic survey of the benthic macroinvertebrates of the Terra Ceia Bay and the Manatee River - October 1993-1995.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #03-96.  28 pp.


Title:
Solutions for problems in corrosion and environmental impact  on 2×3000 m3/d MSF  desalination  plants.


Title:
Current management of membrane plant concentrate

Publication:
AWWA Research Foundation and the American Water Works Association

Abstract:
This project investigates the current state of membrane concentrate disposal and reuse methods in the United States. The scope of the project includes current disposal methods being practiced by utilities using membrane treatment, as well as the viewpoints of regulatory agencies, that are potentially involved in this issue, from each state. Two surveys were used to collect the desired information, one which was distributed to utilities currently using membrane treatment and the one which was distributed to all state regulatory agencies which might be involved in the governing of membrane concentrate disposal issues. The data collected from the utilities is considered on the basis of a number of factors including type of process, source water, disposal practice, and geographical location as indicated by EPA region. The regulatory information collected is addressed on an individual state basis. The collection of data in during the course of this project has revealed some trends in the use of membrane treatment in the drinking water industry. The growth of microfiltration is apparent in California for the use of treating surface waters. Land application of this concentrate is an acceptable option and the Department of Health is often involved in its regulation. Use of nanofiltration processes was reported exclusively by plants located in Florida. Reverse osmosis is used mainly in the southeastern United States to treat groundwater. The use of this concentrate for irrigation purposes was reported by a small percentage of plants and an interest in such practices was expressed by several more. One of the barriers to the reuse of this concentrate is its perceived toxicity. One of the major problems surrounding the concentrate reuse issue is the classification of concentrate as an industrial waste and the resulting regulatory ramifications. This can lead to a lengthy and often expensive regulatory approval process for concentrate reuse and disposal methods. A lack of regulations written specifically for this type of water treatment residual fuels this problem. Utilities considering membrane treatment need to address the issue of concentrate disposal or reuse early in the design stages of the project. Research should be done into available options and the local regulatory requirements surrounding them. This volume compiles available information on membrane concentrate reuse and disposal practices from utility and regulatory standpoints. State regulatory agencies are urged to follow the lead of Florida in the reclassification of concentrates and the production of regulations pertaining specifically to water treatment byproducts of this nature. Also, some form of federal regulation by the EPA regarding this issue could be of significant aid to state regulatory agencies by providing them guidance in addressing concentrate disposal and reuse issues.


Title:
Advanced water supply alternatives for the upper east coast planning area : parts I and II

Publication:
Resource Planning Dept., South Florida Water Management District

Abstract:
The desalination alternative was studied as one of the local alternatives to meet the year 2000 demand of the UECPA. This study shows the following: 1. Withdrawal of 11.5 MGD of water from the Floridan aquifer will lower the existing potentiometric head. At the center of the wellfield, using the hydrogeologic parameters as determined by Brown, the maximum drawdown would be around 36 ft.; however, the drawdown would be minimal away from the center of the wellfield; 2. Due to the finding of THM by the EPA, and if strict enforcement is imposed, the present day potable water may require further treatment. There are two techniques for removing THM: a) by use of activated charcoal, or b) by use of desalt techniques. The pros and cons of these two techniques have been documented by Khanal and Winn (1978). Desalination, in addition to removing THM from the present drinking water, can also be used to supplement the additional water needed by the year 2000. Concerning the economics of desalination, however, the cost/l000 gallons of water is approximately $1.16. This is exclusive of delivery cost. However, if the existing utility builds a desalt plant, the same existing conveyance system can be used. For new developments, conveyance costs must be added to the total cost.


Author:
Killam, K.A., R.J. Hochbert, E.C. Rzemien

Title:
Synthesis of basic life histories of Tampa Bay species.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #03-92.  Prepared by: Versar, Inc.


Title:
The regulation of concentrate disposal in Florida

Publication:
Desalination vol. 102, no. 1 pp. 87-92; Proceedings of the 1994 biennial conference and exposition.  Membrane and desalting technologies

Abstract:
Florida continues to have a very active market for membrane process technologies. However, the regulation of concentrate disposal plays a major role in the feasibility and cost effectiveness of the use of membrane technologies in Florida. There is demand for membrane technologies at current systems with “traditional” saline or brackish water sources. There are also demands from new systems with similar sources in areas of increased growth. As described previously, the use of membrane technologies is expanding to meet other treatment and regulatory objectives. Membrane projects are evaluated for softening, compliance with new and hi ure chemical standards, as well as a microbiological treatment technique. A recent presentation described the Palm Beach County Water Utility Department decision to utilize membrane technology at a new water treatment facility. The initial phase of 6 MGD was designed to meet objectives of softening and color reduction for disinfection by-product control. The presence of an existing deep well injection disposal facility made the low-pressure membrane technology “cost competitive” with a conventional plant utilizing ozone. The author concludes that regulation of concentrate disposal will tend to keep the application of membrane technologies (certainly large scale projects) near the coastlines. This is where saline or brackish environments or deep injection wells are located which have the greatest feasibility for use in disposal options. Further, the regulation of concentrate disposal may tend to limit membrane feasibility for softening or disinfection by-product control by limiting feasibility for inland projects.


Publication:
1993 Membrane Technology Conference. Baltimore, MD. Denver, CO: AWWA


Title:
Aerial census of mantees in northeastern Florida.

Abstract:
Abundance and distribution of Trichechus manatus in the lower St Johns River is possibly limited by cold water temperatures during the winter and a limited food supply. The northeastern stretch of the Intracoastal Waterway is used primarily by manatees as a migratory route along the E coast of Florida and S Georgia during the late autumn and early spring. Low calf counts coupled with high adult mortality and decreased annual winter counts at 2 NE Florida power plants suggest that the manatee population there may be declining. The burgeoning human population along Florida's NE coast and the subsequent increase in boat traffic and habitat destruction will probably cause a further decline in population numbers.


Title:
Potable Water Desalination in the U.S.: Capital Costs, Operating Costs, and Water Selling Prices


Publication:
1991 Global Seawater Desalination Seminar


Author:
Leverone, J.R., J.K. Cutler, J.S. Sprinkel, M.R. Milligan, and S. Mahadevan.

Title:
Evaluation of long-term studies of the benthic community in the vicinity of Big Bend, Tampa Bay.   In: Tampa Basis 2, Treat, S.F.; Clark, P.A. editors.


Author:
Long, E.R., D. MacDonald, and C. Cairncross

Title:
Status and trends in toxicants and the potential for their biological effect in Tampa Bay, Florida

Publication:
NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 58.  77pp.


Title:
Freshwater inflows to Texas bays and estuaries:  Ecological relationships and methods for determination of needs.

Publication:
Texas Water Development Board and Texas Parks and Wildlife Dept., Austin, Texas.  386 pp.


Title:
Expanding Applications for Membrane Processing in Water Treatment

Publication:
Proc. of the 1990 NWSIA Biennial Conference. Walt Disney World Village, Fla.: NWSIA


Title:
Environmental impact  of waste brine disposal of  desalination  plants, Red Sea, Egypt


Title:
Tampa Bay Sediment Quality Workshop:  Setting targets and defining management strategies.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #06-97  Prepared by:  Macdonald Environmental Services Ltd.  Ladysmith, B.C., Canada.


Title:
Desalination Is Proving a Viable Alternative.

Publication:
ENR, New York; October 16, 2000; Vol. 245, Iss. 15; pg. 72

Abstract:
Bowing to the inevitable, Tampa Bay area officials have finally begun a much-needed $609-million water supply enhancement program. It includes one, and possibly a second, 25-mgd seawater desalination plant as well as two 4-5-mgd brackish water desalination plants. They are to be congratulated for the boldness of their decision and the intelligent manner in which they implemented their plan. When the desalination plant becomes operational in 2002, it will become the first privately owned seawater plant serving metropolitan needs in the U.S. More are inevitable.


Title:
Taking Out Salt Is Sweet Market; Desalination booms to keep global taps flowing.

Publication:
William J. Angelo; ENR, New York; October 16, 2000; Vol. 245, Iss. 15; pg. 46

Abstract:
Desalination, once considered a costly necessity to create usable water in remote desert regions or Third World nations, is going mainstream in a big way. Producing drinkable water from seawater, brackish water and other marginal sources isn't a new idea, but it's now getting to be a more popular one. With growing populations demanding more clean water, and traditional sources plagued by overuse and undersupply, desalination is no longer the water world's poor stepchild.


Title:
A Sea Change in the Search for Water; New technology could make desalination more affordable.

Publication:
Business Week, New York; January 22, 2001, Iss. 3716; Industrial/technology edition; pg. 94D

Abstract:
Rainfall and healthy aquifers once provided more than enough drinking water for the residents of the Tampa Bay region. But recent droughts and a threefold increase in population, to 2.3 million, since 1970 have forced the city to find a new source. That turns out to be something closer at hand than most residents expected: the briny sea. Tampa Bay, which rises from Florida's west coast is now a test site for new ways to extract freshwater from the ocean.    Tampa Bay's water problems aren't unique. Of course, freshwater is scarce in many Western states. But even in the Eastern U.S., droughts and diminishing groundwater supplies have left communities in Georgia, Virginia, and Maryland feeling parched. As a consequence, many people are watching the Tampa Bay experiment with intense interest. Desalination could emerge as one solution to water shortages in numerous coastal communities if the techniques under development there prove cost effective and if environmental concerns--such as where to put all the salt that is removed--can be addressed.


Title:
A study on the recovery of benthic infauna at Apollo Beach Embayment following a silt-spill and subsequent dredging.

Publication:
Final report submitted to TECO.  June 1977 by Conservation Consultants, Inc.  30pp.


Author:
Mahadevan, S., J.K. Culter, and R. Yarborough

Title:
A study of thermal effects on benthic communities of Big Bend, Tampa Bay, Florida.

Publication:
A technical report submitted to Stone & Webster Engineering Corp. by Mote Marine Laboratory.  154 pp.


Author:
Mahadevan, S., R.H. Blanchet, G.W. Patton, G.S. Comp, and K.D. Dickinson

Title:
A biological and water quality evaluation of a proposed organism return canal at Big Bend, Tampa, Florida.

Publication:
Submitted to Stone & Webster Engineering Corp. by Mote Marine Laboratory.  81 pp.


Title:
Dealing with Membrane Concentrate Disposal in Florida

Abstract:
This presentation provides an overview of the existing Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) rule language and options that pertain to the permitting, compliance, and enforcement of facilities using membrane technology and which persistently fail toxicity tests. Florida leads the nation in the number of facilities which utilize membranes to treat raw water to provide drinking water. FDEP is responsible for the permitting of both the facility creating the drinking water and the proper disposal of the concentrate created at 123 sites, generating nearly 200 MGD of potable water. In recent years, due to the inclusion of bioassay testing requirements into operation permits, many of the drinking water plants which dispose of their concentrate to surface waters have shown persistent acute toxicity to the mysid shrimp, Mysidopsis Bahia. In December 1995, FDEP released the findings from an intensive investigation (“Protocols for Determining Major-Seawater-Ion Toxicity in Membrane-Technology Water-Treatment Concentrate”) into the causes of toxicity at six water treatment plants within Florida. Once this determination has been made, FDEP has developed guidance which allows a facility to continue to operate while implementing design changes or acquiring the necessary administrative relief. There are many existing options available to facilities that are unable to routinely comply with the toxicity testing requirements in their permits.


Title:
Use of Biomonitoring Data to Reduce Effluent Toxicity

Publication:
Chemical Engineering Progress, 88(9): 43-49

Abstract:
When biomonitoring indicates toxicity or the presence of specific toxic pollutants in an effluent, EPA and many state agencies require the discharger to perform a toxicity reduction evaluation (TRE).This article provides some guidance on how to reduce toxicity and avoid a TRE. First, some brief background on biomonitoring is presented. Next, the basic procedures for conducting a TRE are outlined. Even if a TRE is not required, the techniques involved may be used on a voluntary and less-structured basis. Finally, strategies for avoiding a full-scale, formal TRE are discussed.


Author:
Mavrov, V., H. Chmiel, B. Heitele and F. Rögener

Title:
Desalination  of surface water to industrial water with lower  impact  on the environment. Part 1: New technological concept.

Abstract:
The main environmental problems of conventional processes for the production of desalinated water are caused by the regeneration of ion exchangers, during which waste water with high salt concentration is obtained and by the concentrates from partial membrane desalination, which have to be disposed of. Our new technological concept focuses on the application of improved technologies for the production of industrial desalinated water with lower impact on the environment. This involves an improved pre-treatment stage, a combination of different membrane processes and an ion exchange stage. By the use of electrodialysis with bipolar membranes, a mixed acid and a mixed base from the regenerates of the ion exchangers and/or from concentrates of the membrane stage can be produced. They can be re-used in the pre-treatment stage and for the regeneration of ion exchangers. The pilot plant, which was built up and optimised, includes different stages: pre-treatment; low pressure reverse osmosis for partial desalination; total desalination by ion exchange; reverse osmosis and electrodialysis for the concentration of the retentate from partial membrane desalination; and acid and base production by electrodialysis with bipolar membranes. The first experimental results, which show the feasibility of the new concept, are presented and discussed.


Title:
Salinity tolerance of five marine spermatophytes of Redfish Bay, Texas.


Title:
Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal Technology


Title:
Survival of organisms entrained by the Anclote Power Plant near Tarpon Springs, Florida.   Treat, S.F (editor)


Title:
Environmental Considerations for the Disposal of Desalination Concentrates

Publication:
The international Desalination and Water Reuse Quarterly, 5(4), February/March 1996, pp. 56-61

Abstract:
Concentrates from both membrane and thermal desalting processes are considered in discussions of: Characteristics of concentrates produced; Methods of concentrate disposal; Design variables and capital cost elements for the disposal methods; Environmental concerns associated with the disposal methods. Particular attention is paid to surface water disposal as it is the most frequently used disposal option for both seawater and brackish water desalting plants.


Title:
Major Ion Toxicity in Membrane Concentrate

Abstract:
The general research objective was to develop an understanding of major ion toxicity as it applies to membrane concentrate and the mysid shrimp test organism so as to anticipate toxicity occurrence, to allow for its determination, and to allow for its cost-effective regulation. The project tasks confirmed the role of ion toxicity in all nine membrane concentrates studied and determined that excessive calcium and excessive fluoride levels were the major contributors to concentrate toxicity. In addition, the nature of major ion toxicity was characterized with respect to threshold limits, dilution requirements for nontoxicity, single ion versus multi-ion contributions, and the effect of total dissolved solids (TDS) level on toxicity. A procedure was developed to predict the potential for major ion toxicity from analysis of raw water or concentrate quality, and protocols were outlined for determining the specific causes of major ion toxicity in membrane concentrates and more broadly any cause of toxicity in membrane concentrates. Single ion LC5O values were identified for several major ions at different TDS levels. The likelihood of major ion toxicity occurring at other locations in the United States (besides Florida) was confirmed, and it was determined that the occurrence of major ion toxicity is restricted to groundwater sources and brackish water reverse osmosis, membrane softening, and electrodialysis processes. Lastly, it was determined that major ion toxicity in membrane concentrate is not caused by the membrane process itself but results from the nature of the groundwater. Regulatory and technical approaches to facilitate concentrate permitting were also reviewed and evaluated.


Title:
Membrane Concentrate Disposal: Practices and Regulations

Abstract:
The project objective was to provide the membrane utility industry with a valuable and useful reference source focusing on characterizing and documenting membrane concentrate and backwash disposal practices and regulations. The project objective was accomplished through the following tasks: Survey task:  A detailed survey of 149 membrane plants provided a characterization of the membrane utility industry, in general, and the concentrate and backwash disposal practices, in particular; Regulatory task:  Federal regulations were documented to provide the framework for a subsequent state-by-state review of disposal regulations; Cost model task:  Design and cost issues associated with the various concentrate disposal options were discussed and for four disposal options (deep well injection, spray irrigation, evaporation pond, and zero liquid discharge), preliminary level cost models were developed; Database development task: A stand-alone executable database was developed to permit viewing, manipulation, and printing of the survey information; CD deliverable task:  The stand-alone database, the project final report, and the preliminary cost models were made available in an easy to use, menu-driven CD format.


Author:
Mickley, M., Hamilton, R., Gallegos, L., and Truesdall, J.

Abstract:
This project seeks to investigate the application of regulations to disposal of membrane concentrate. To fully explore the question of the effect of the regulations on the feasibility of membrane processes, several major elements are addressed: first, membrane concentrate and its characteristics, including the definition of and nature of the wastes that are being regulated; second, the disposal methods that are being regulated, including descriptions of how the concentrate is disposed of; and third, the regulations and permits that apply to the various disposal- options. Research of these three elements was the primary focus of the project. Within these three elements are various membrane processes, various process wastes, various disposal methods, and, of course, 50 sets of state regulations. The approach taken was to focus on those processes, wastes, disposal methods, and states that were involved most frequently in the existing membrane drinking water plants. To document the basis for defining these areas of focus, a detailed survey was made of membrane drinking water plants. On this basis, the areas of focus chosen were reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), and electrodialysis—electrodialysis reversal (ED-EDR) processes; membrane concentrate; the breadth of disposal methods; and the federal regulations, as well as the state regulations of California and Florida. In the process of conducting the membrane plant survey and researching and documenting the characteristics, disposal methods, and regulations involved, several issues or areas of concern were identified that affect membrane concentrate disposal. Discussion of these issues in the report provides a more complete picture of the current state of membrane concentrate disposal and its future direction. The issues lead to identification of membrane drinking water industry needs and to recommendations for addressing these needs.


Title:
Desalination R&D: The new federal program. (Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress.)

Publication:
Committee For The National Institute for the Environment.  Washington, D.C. 20006. (enie@enie.org)


Title:
Desalination [microform] : environmental considerations.

Publication:
Major studies and issue briefs of the Congressional Research Service. Supplement ; 1991, 91-426 SPR.   [Washington, D.C.] : Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, [1991]


Title:
Case Study: Martin County, Florida "A Utility's Experience Developing a New Reverse  Osmosis Treatment System"

Publication:
Desalination, Vol. 87, No. 1-3, p 249-265, September 1992.

Abstract:
After the state water management district required that Martin County, Florida, curtail use of a shallow freshwater aquifer and develop an alternative water supply, a consulting firm was retained to conduct an alternative water-supply study. The consultant recommended a reverse osmosis (RO) treatment system for a brackish water supply. Issues that arose during the 24-month period before plans and specifications were completed included concentrate disposal permitting, public acceptance, and plant utilization. In Martin County, concentrate disposal permitting added well over a year to the original time schedule. The County's existing deep wastewater well was eventually approved for concentrate disposal. Public acceptance proved to be a struggle between the various interest groups in the County. Three aspects of public acceptance were environmental groups, which were ironically, on both sides of the issue, residents opposed to water rate increases and people opposed to any increase in water supply development. The degree of plant utilization had important financial and technical implications. The water utility also had to resolve odor treatment of hydrogen sulfide gas emissions and find an alternate supplier of RO membranes when a federal court order took the elected membrane off the market. The final design had an ultimate capacity of three trains, each producing 1.5 MGD of permeate for a total capacity of 4.5 MGD. The plant was designed to blend final treated permeate with lime-softened finish water from the existing lime plant.


Title:
Concentrate Permitting at Martin County, Florida

Publication:
1992 AWWA Annual Conference, May 20, Orlando, Fla


Title:
Estimating Evaporation From Utah’s Great Salt Lake Using Thermal Infrared Satellite Imagery


Title:
Implementing a Beneficial Use Program for WTP Residuals; All the Work Does (Eventually) Pay Off!

Publication:
Water Residuals and Biosolids Management: Approaching the Year 2000. WEF/A WWA Joint Conference. Philadelphia, PA. Alexandria, VA.: WEF.


Title:
Assessing Desalting Needs of South Florida

Publication:
Desalination in South Florida, Proc. of NWSIA and SFWMD Seminar


Author:
Morton, A. J. , I. K. Callister and N. M. Wade

Title:
Environmental impacts  of seawater distillation and reverse osmosis processes

Publication:
Desalination V. 108:(1-3).   Pp. 1-10.  February 1997

Abstract:
The paper presents and compares the marine and atmospheric discharges of typical large MSF and RO plants. Distillation plants require an inlet seawater flow around 8 to 10 times the fresh water production rate, for cooling and feed make-up. The discharge is raised in salinity and in temperature, due to heat rejection from the process. A seawater RO plant generally requires a lower feedwater flow rate of around 2.5 to 3 times the production. Salinity of the discharge is correspondingly greater than in distillation, but temperature rise is small. Chemical discharges are compared for the different processes. A comparison is made of atmospheric emissions from generating the power to drive RO process pumps and the emissions resulting from generation of steam and auxiliary power for distillation (in dual purpose desalination/power plants). The factors affecting site selection and requirements for seawater intakes and outfalls are briefly discussed, with examples. The land area needed for a desalination plant is compared with the catchment and reservoir areas needed for a typical surface water collection scheme to illustrate the much lower impact of desalination on land resources. Factors such as noise and aesthetics are also briefly discussed.


Title:
Preliminary fine mesh screen studies Tampa Electric Company Big Bend Power Plant.

Publication:
A technical report submitted to TECO by Mote Marine Laboratory.  9 pp.


Title:
Environmental Requirements:  Assessment of the Bay Scallop Argopecten irradians concentricus.


Title:
Fine mesh screen (FMS) optimization study.

Publication:
A technical report submitted to TECO by Mote Marine Laboratory.


Title:
Prototype fine mesh screen evaluation, biological and water quality studies - facilities and procedures - final report.

Publication:
Submitted to Sone & Webster Engineering Corp.


Title:
Disposal of Concentrate From Brackish Water Desalting Plants by Use of Deep Injection Wells

Publication:
Disposal of Concentrates From Brackish Water Desalting Plants, Proc. of NWSIA and SFWMD Seminar

Abstract:
Under the appropriate site-specific conditions, deep injection wells can offer a feasible solution to disposing of concentrates from reverse osmosis plants. Deep injection well systems can be reliable, environmentally safe, and cost-effective. There has been considerable experience with deep injection wells for the disposal of treated wastewater effluents in the state so that deep injection wells are a proven technology for South Florida. This paper briefly covers design of deep injection wells, regulations, and a case study.


Title:
Advanced Waste Treatment by Distillation

Publication:
AWTR-7, United States Public Health Service Report, 999-WP-9


Title:
The biology and conservation of the Blue Crab, Callinectes sapidus Rathbun.

Publication:
Virginia Fisheries Laboratory, Educational Series 4:1-39.  39 pp.


Title:
Desalination plant not harmful to Tampa Bay, 2nd study concludes.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; NEIL JOHNSON; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Jan 20, 2001; pg. 5

Abstract:
A county study reaches similar conclusions to an earlier report, which was financed by a desalination plant's developer. A second study, this one paid for by Hillsborough County, shows a desalination plant will not cause environmental problems for Tampa Bay. The study also reveals there will be no combined impacts from the desalination plant and the siphoning of water from the Hillsborough and Alafia rivers and Tampa Bypass Canal during the rainy season. "There is no cumulative impact," sa


Publication:
Series: EDITORIALS; [SOUTH PINELLAS Edition]; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Apr 8, 2000; pg. 14.A

Abstract:
After several weeks of attempting to alter the master water plan for the Tampa Bay area, Pasco County’s representatives to the regional water authority now offer a more attractive alternative that Tampa Bay Water’s own consulting project manager characterizes as viable and worthy of serious consideration. Such descriptions were in short supply regarding earlier Pasco plans that called for scuttling a reservoir in Hillsborough County and eliminating future groundwater pumping in favor of a second seawater desalination plant and the process known as aquifer storage and recovery, in which excessive surface water is stored underground for later use.


Title:
Team players needed to avoid mixed water signals.

Publication:
Series: COLUMN; [STATE Edition]; C.T. BOWEN; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Mar 5, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
And, a key element of that year's tri-county, three-city agreement creating the Tampa Bay Water utility was adding representatives for Pasco County. With the water board expanded from five to nine members, no longer would Pasco be out-voted simply because of geography.  They and other Pasco County commissioners sat together for close to three hours Feb. 15 to devise a water strategy to take to Tampa Bay Water, which is charged with reducing groundwater pumping in Pasco County by 40 percent over the next seven years. The aim is to reduce the environmental damage stemming from years of withdrawing water from beneath east and central Pasco.  Whether you agreed with the commission's tactic or not, there was no mistaking the position. The consensus included maintaining opposition to proposed groundwater withdrawals at Two Rivers Ranch, agreeing with Hillsborough County representatives to fight pumping at the Cone Ranch project, and advocating a second desalination plant, possibly in Pasco County, as an alternative.


Title:
Critics ready to scrutinize new Bay desalination study.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Dec 7, 2000; pg. 1

Abstract:
APOLLO BEACH - Local residents continue to discuss the wisdom of putting a desalination plant on Hillsborough Bay. The long-anticipated results of a county study intended to gauge the effects of planned water supply projects on Tampa Bay are expected shortly. However, the effort may face the same concernsfrom residents as an earlier study commissioned by desalination developer S&W Water. The developer in October released results of a $110,000 University of South Florida study that found sa


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; NEIL JOHNSON; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 29, 2000; pg. 1

Abstract:
APOLLO BEACH - Nearly 700 people who packed a high school auditorium Monday night didn't hear the one thing they wanted. They hoped David Struhs, secretary of the state Department of Environmental Regulation, would tell them he'd order an extensive study of the impacts from a desalination plant planned for the shores of Tampa Bay. But Struhs would not give an answer despite being bombarded by more than two hours of questions about the desalination plant. "No, I will not," Struhs said when


Title:
Desalination opponents plot legal steps.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 26, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
APOLLO BEACH - Opponents of desalination at Big Bend rally after disappointing news from state regulators. A seawater desalination plant on Hillsborough Bay may not be a "done deal," opponents say, but in the minds of many, the state permit for it is. Save Our Bays and Canals, after a disappointing meeting last week with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, turned its attention Thursday to raising money for legal challenges to the anticipated permit. J.B. Canterberry, SOBAC


Title:
Proposed desalination plant looks for chemical storage OK.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 8, 2001; pg. 1

Abstract:
APOLLO BEACH - The developer of a proposed seawater desalination facility is nearing the end of the permit process. The Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Commission is drafting a permit for a 50-ton lime storage silo at the desalination plant proposed to be built at Big Bend. Desalination developer S&W Water told regulators it expects to use about 3 tons of lime a day in treating water at the facility, beginning in 2002, and needs a storage building. The primary issue for regula


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 8, 2000; pg. 12

Abstract:
At a meeting at East Bay High School the other day, a crowd of Hillsborough County residents pleaded with state Department of Environmental Protection chief David Struhs to order an independent review of a desalination plant and other proposed water-supply projects. The citizens clearly had done their homework and presented an impressive amount of material to support their arguments that the desalination plant, which would dump 19 million gallons of brine into Tampa Bay each day, would harm th


Title:
Burec Report Will Evaluate Tucson's Desalination Options.

Publication:
David B. Rosenbaum; ENR, New York; February 28, 2000; Vol. 244, Iss. 8; pg. 14

Abstract:
BUILDING A RECORD-SIZED REVERSE-OSMOSIS DESALINATION PLANT in Tucson might seem like a $500-million pipe dream. But officials plan to use a new $918,000 report to initiate a project designed to keep Arizonans from drowning in salt in coming decades.


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; WILL RODGERS; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Apr 14, 2000; pg. 1

Abstract:
Candidates for the District 5 county commission seat field questions on desalination, growth, taxes and more at a debate. If they were on the county commission, the five candidates for the District 5 seat would fight efforts to build a desalination plant in Pasco. That includes the incumbent, David "Hap" Clark, who in recent months has voted repeatedly to support desalination to meet the area's ever-growing thirst for water. Clark, a Democrat, and Republican candidates Ja


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; LIZ BLEAU; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 13, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
Developers of a proposed desalination plant have opened an office in Apollo Beach. Members of Save Our Bays and Canals (SOBAC) and other environmental activists sparred with the developers of a proposed desalination plant on Tampa Bay at a community meeting Friday. The meeting, called by S&W Water, developers of the $94 million plant to be built near the Tampa Electric Co. plant on Big Bend Road, was to explain the plant and to answer questions. SOBAC is waging a campaign against the desal


Title:
State concerned about desalination waste

Abstract:
DuPont wants to use an underground disposal method that has seen its share of problems in Pinellas. For nearly a decade, Pinellas County has made treated sewage disappear by pumping it deep beneath our feet. But the trick hasn't always worked: Some of that wastewater has migrated up from where it was supposed to stay and reappeared in groundwater aquifers. Now DuPont wants to try the same vanishing act with another form of waste, the byproduct of desalination, saying it will succeed where the county has failed.


Publication:
[All Edition]; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Dec 10, 2000; pg. F.4

Abstract:
During the more than 12 years that I have been a full-time resident of Sarasota County, I have experienced several stages of irrigation water availability, and what is evolving is quite disturbing.At first we could irrigate lawns, shrubs and flowers with no restrictions.Then we were put on a temporary, two-days-a-week irrigation restriction, to be lifted as soon as the water table returned to an adequate level. Soon it was decided that this restriction was going to be a permanent one. After all


Title:
Why can't springs provide water in severe drought?

Publication:
Series: LETTERS; [STATE Edition]; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Jan 14, 2001; pg. 2

Abstract:
Editor: A few years ago when visiting Weeki Wachee, some of the facts in the narrative revealed that it is built on a natural spring that releases millions and millions of gallons of pure water that empties into the Gulf of Mexico every day. At the time I wondered why this is allowed to take place when we have such a water shortage in our state. I've never been able to get a satisfactory reply.  I've read and heard about desalination plants to be built to provide us with "pure" water at great cost. It's an unexplained mystery to me why all these millions of gallons of the purest water empty into the gulf, and then some miles farther down the coast there are proposed plants to remove the salts and impurities from this gulf water to make it fit for human consumption.


Title:
Candidates should be clear on desalination stance.

Publication:
Series: LETTERS; [STATE Edition]; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Apr 19, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
Editor: This hit a hot button. Perhaps we need to remind those gentlemen running for District 5 that there is a lot of Pasco County east of U.S. 19.No new water can be brought on line west of U.S. 19 because of saltwater intrusion. There is no land in north or southwestern Pasco that can be tapped for future water sources. New Port Richey's outlying areas are already experiencing drawdown damage and soil subsidence from Starkey Well Field and private utilities.Central Pasco County is experiencing massive environmental damage. Soil subsidence and hardwood loss are a daily occurrence, and sinkholes near the well fields are becoming common. Aquifer levels are at an all-time low. East Pasco is next in line, even though it is already damaged from overpumping, and the county has rightfully adopted a policy to stop development of further groundwater sources.


Publication:
[All Edition]; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Jan 31, 2001; pg. A.10

Abstract:
Far from being a problem, the desire of Farmland Hydro to withdraw 6.25 million gallons of water a day from the upper Peace River represents a golden opportunity. An opportunity for both Farmland Hydro and the public.Operation of the phosphate mine would provide jobs, and profits for Farmland Hydro. But because of the impending water shortage, the Southwest Florida Water Management District is reluctant to grant this water and further reduce Peace River flow. Swiftmud, as the district is called


Publication:
[All Edition]; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Dec 31, 2000; pg. F.4

Abstract:
Fifty years ago the water supply was adequate for the area, but the influx of people and industry are depleting the supply each year. We as a people could see it coming and now it is here.There is nothing to be gained by pointing fingers at each other at this time. Let's rally around the problem and get started on a desalination plant in this area; perhaps a plant in each county.The 1 percent sales tax would be a good start, or perhaps a 5 percent tax for a period of 10 years, or a 1 percent t


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 16, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
Florida's chief environmentalist, David Struhs, secretary of the department of Environmental Protection, visited Hillsborough County late last month. During a meeting in Apollo Beach he got an earful from residents concerned that a desalination plant targeted for Tampa Electric Co.'s Big Bend facility would harm Tampa Bay. The residents made some strong points, and their concerns, including the potential effects of salinity levels on the bay, should be thoroughly addressed before the facility


Title:
Tampa Bay Water forges ahead without study.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; JOHN R. MOHME; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 4, 2000; pg. 15

Abstract:
Having read the columns by Jerry Maxwell of Tampa Bay Water and David Oellerich of the Greater Tampa Chamber of Commerce (SaturdayForum, Feb. 19), I feel a response that details verifiable facts must be presented to the region's constituency. Only by review of the depth of information can unbiased decisions be made. Although Tampa Bay Water has been charged with finding new drought-proof and drought-resistant water resources as an alternative to groundwater pumping, its current master water pl


Title:
Water plan heavy on desalination gains supporters.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; NEIL JOHNSON; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Apr 8, 2000; pg. 4

Abstract:
Hillsborough County commissioners want assurances a second desalination plant would not affect Tampa Bay. Hillsborough County commissioners Friday agreed to back a Pasco plan that could dramatically alter how the region gets new water supplies over the next eight years. The plan, championed by Pasco Commissioner Steve Simon, would scrap two proposed wellfields and add a second desalination plant someplace along the Gulf of Mexico. The Hillsborough commission's support comes as Tampa Bay Wa (


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; NEIL JOHNSON; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Apr 11, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
Hillsborough was promised another desalination plant would not be built anywhere in the county. A second desalination plant and stockpiling river water underground during the rainy season are the newest potential sources to quench the region's raging thirst. The possibility of a new large wellfield in Hillsborough County and expansion of a wellfield in Pasco County also became more remote. Tampa Bay Water, a regional utility that supplies wholesale water to nearly 2 million people in the T


Publication:
[STATE Edition]; ANNE LINDBERG; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Mar 27, 2000; pg. 6

Abstract:
If there's enough brackish water, Pinellas Park has an increased chance of being the site of a new desalination plant.  Scientists could begin drilling test wells late this week to see if Pinellas Park is a good location for a water treatment plant.  Tampa Bay Water, the area's largest utility, will dig two wells on the city's old sewer plant site, 6951 102nd Ave. N. The utility also will use an existing city well near 58th Street N and Park Boulevard to monitor the testing


Title:
Test wells to sample for brackish water.

Publication:
[STATE Edition]; ANNE LINDBERG; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Mar 29, 2000; pg. 11

Abstract:
If there's enough brackish water, Pinellas Park has an increased chance of being the site of a new desalination plant.  Scientists could begin drilling test wells late this week to see if Pinellas Park is a good location for a water treatment plant.  Tampa Bay Water, the area's largest utility, will dig two wells on the city's old sewer plant site, 6951 102nd Ave. N. The utility also will use an existing city well near 58th Street N and Park Boulevard to monitor the testing.


Title:
Shooting war won't remedy water trouble.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; TOM JACKSON; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 10, 2000; pg. 1

Abstract:
If you want to participate in the water wars - and, yes, there was a cease- fire, but it appears only to have been an opportunity for some to reload - you have to know your alphabet. We're not talking just about your ABCs, but your DEPs and your EISes and your TBWs. And now, it is vital you know your SOBACs, which appears to be the latest configuration of that traditional favorite, your NIMBYs. SOBAC - shorthand for Save Our Bay and Canals, a coalition of folks from in and around Apollo Beac


Title:
Water board votes to study a second desalination plant.

Publication:
[LATE TAMPA Edition]; ALISA ULFERTS; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Apr 11, 2000; pg. 1.B

Abstract:
In a push to further reduce groundwater pumping, Tampa Bay Water board members Monday agreed to reconsider a second seawater desalination plant.  The Tampa Bay Water board's vote means consultants immediately will begin extensive environmental, financial and other studies of a second desal plant, which the board agreed not to put in Hillsborough. That county is home to the first proposed desal plant.  Assuming the second desal plant clears the feasibility studies, water board members will select it before they consider three proposed well fields when they pick their final water projects next year. Two of those groundwater projects are in Hillsborough and one is in Pasco County.


Title:
The push for "Seawater Desalination II' in Pasco.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 27, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
It is well-documented that the Tampa Bay region's dependency upon wellfield pumping to provide potable drinking water to residents has damaged wetlands and lakes in Pasco County and north Hillsborough. That devastating environmental impact is a key reason why the three-county area's water supplier correctly turned to seawater desalination as a viable alternative water source - a drought-proof one, at that. Last March, after nearly four years of discussion, study and debate, the board of Tampa


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 29, 2000; pg. 10

Abstract:
It's disappointing that the Florida Department of Environmental Protection will not oversee an independent study of the effects of a desalination plant on Tampa Bay. But the agency has legitimate concerns. The desalination plant at Tampa Electric Co. is part of Tampa Bay Water's master plan to meet the region's drinking-water needs while cutting wellfield pumping that has harmed wetlands and lakes in Pasco and Hillsborough. That plan includes a huge reservoir in south Hillsborough where "exces


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; FRANK SARGEANT; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 13, 2000; pg. 4

Abstract:
Jim Anderson of Ruskin, a longtime grouper fisherman, has come up with a novel, but possibly reasonable, solution to the fresh water problems that are dogging the human population around Tampa Bay. "In a lot of spots along the edge of the Gulf are these huge underwater springs that pour out millions of gallons of fresh water every day from the aquifer," Anderson said. "It's just like there are all these Weeki Wachee rivers out there dumping into the Gulf underwater, and that water is all going


Title:
Tampa Bay Water should proceed cautiously as it develops master plan.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 18, 2000; pg. 14

Abstract:
Many citizens, particularly in Hillsborough County, feel they are being stampeded by Tampa Bay Water's quest to quickly develop a comprehensive water supply program. The agency has pushed hard to begin implementation of its $600 million-plus master water plan, which relies heavily on Hillsborough water sources - a desalination plant on Tampa Bay, a 1,100-acre reservoir in south Hillsborough and various wellfields. The truth is that the utility is simply executing its charge: to meet the regi


Title:
Seawater desalination plant is closer to reality.

Publication:
[SOUTH PINELLAS Edition]; JEAN HELLER; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Dec 2, 2000; pg. 3.B

Abstract:
Meanwhile, another potential delay hangs over the project. Even assuming DEP issues the final permit, the 25-million-gallon-a-day desal plant still could face legal challenges from residents who live in the Big Bend area of southern Hillsborough County and don't want a desal plant near their homes. "Yes, construction could be delayed if DEP sticks to that schedule," said Tim De Foe, director of project development for S&W Water. "There are options, the potential for acceleration of construction, but we will deal with that when the time comes. Meanwhile, we're very pleased that DEP has taken this step, which sets in motion the time clock that will allow us to bring desalinated water to the region."


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; WILLIAM YELVERTON; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 20, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
Next month marks a year since the board of Tampa Bay Water, the new-look regional utility with the same old problems, voted to build a seawater desalination plant along Tampa Bay in the Big Bend area of Hillsborough County. There was opposition then. There is opposition now. Many Hillsborough residents are concerned the facility, which will be the largest in the United States, will forever damage Tampa Bay. And they are demanding an environmental impact study that could delay the much-needed


Publication:
[SOUTH PINELLAS Edition]; JEAN HELLER; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Feb 29, 2000; pg. 6.B

Abstract:
Officials foresee the plants, once considered a pipe dream, as a source of drinking water. Not many years ago seawater desalination was the poor stepchild in plans to bring new drinking water resources to the region. Today, water officials are talking about a desal plant for each county, and they aren't joking. "You know what would be even-handed?" asked Pasco Commissioner Steve Simon, a member of the board of Tampa Bay Water. "The (regional water master) plan has got a desal plant in Hillsborough. Get a desal plant in Pinellas and a desal plant in Pasco." "Second," said Hillsborough Commissioner Chris Hart, though Simon had not presented his idea in the form of a motion. "It's going to come to that," said St. Petersburg Mayor David Fischer. Simon touched his moustache. "And this won't be white when it happens, either," he said. Simon and other members of the water utility board think plans for new water development rely too heavily on new ground water supplies. They say not enough attention has been paid to the possible impact on Tampa Bay of having a desalination plant at Big Bend discharging brine into the bay, even as fresh water is siphoned off the Alafia and Hillsborough rivers and from the Tampa Bypass Canal. Hart said he was concerned that studies by the state Department of Environment Protection will focus only on the impact of the plant itself and not on this overall picture. He asked, and got the board to agree Monday, to suggest to DEP Secretary David Struhs that he appoint a scientific panel to evaluate the big picture so the plant's scheduled opening in January 2003 isn't delayed. Whether Struhs will agree with the proposal is unknown. But even if he rejects the idea of an oversight panel, the proposal could shift some of the political burden from Hillsborough to Tallahassee officials. Simon made the point several times that the region can't ease the strain on the Floridan aquifer - from which most of the area's drinking water now comes - by moving well fields to new locations, such as Brandon in southern Hillsborough and the Cone Ranch in northeast Hillsborough. "You take blood out of my right arm and tell me: Don't worry, it won't hurt you; we'll open a tap in your left arm," Simon said. "But it's all my body." While agreeing with Simon in principle, Fischer said this is no time to be tearing up the master water plan. "We have plans now we're moving on, and if we delay it all comes apart . . . and we get the state in here managing our water resources for us, and we lose all control," he said. A monthly report on current aquifer conditions underscored the need for new water resources and the need to relieve the aquifer from overpumping. Lack of rain, combined with high demand because of tourism and unseasonably warm weather, is draining the aquifer much faster than normal. It was down a foot in January, a month in which it usually loses one inch. At the end of the month, it was lower than at the same time last year by 4.5 feet.


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Oct 5, 2000; pg. 14

Abstract:
Officials in West Central Florida should pay close attention to The Tampa Tribune's "Living on the Edge" special section on Tampa Bay, which was published last Sunday. The articles therein, by Tribune staff writer Jan Hollingsworth, accompanied by photographs by Fred Fox, chronicle the wonders of this resource and the great gambles that are being taken with its future. The 400-square-mile estuary is the state's largest, and it swirls with life - crabs, manatees, porpoises, turtles, sharks, t


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Jan 12, 2001; pg. 14

Abstract:
Only when Mother Nature cooperates with ample rain does the Tampa Bay area have bountiful fresh water. During droughts - like the one we're suffering through now - rivers, lakes and wells run dangerously low and officials restrict lawn watering to one day a week. In dry times, controversial projects to produce more water gain broad support. In earlier years, most new water came from creating more wells in rural areas. Now that big wells are understood to sap underground water from neighboring


Title:
Proposed desal plant can't filter skepticism.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Sep 10, 2000; pg. 3

Abstract:
Other than in Hillsborough County, the only major, state-of-the-art seawater desalination plant under serious consideration in the world is at Ashkelon on the Mediterranean Sea in the arid and virtual desert nation of Israel. It has a manufactured (desalinated) water price (surely to be higher; it always is, isn't it?) estimated at three times that of Hillsborough County's present wholesale ground water cost of $1 per 1,000 gallons. With Florida's enormous aquifer equal to the water gallonage


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; WILL RODGERS and SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 13, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
Pasco residents who support an Apollo Beach desalination plant are prepared to take on Hillsborough residents opposing it. Call it the battle of the activists: Pasco County residents who want to cut wellfield pumping vs. folks from south Hillsborough County looking to protect Tampa Bay. The struggle is over water - specifically, drinking water - and how to procure enough of it to keep pace with demand. At issue is whether a desalination plant should be built in south Hillsborough, off Big Be


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Sep 27, 2000; pg. 3

Abstract:
PLANT CITY - County commissioners got their first official look Tuesday at some tough choices ahead in their quest to steer water suppliers' divining rod away from Cone Ranch. Options such as buying water from neighboring Manatee County, building a second desalination plant on the Anclote River or at Port Manatee, weaning agriculture and industry away from potable water use and pumping water from sinkholes, natural springs and land preservation tracts showed up on a 10-page summary of potentia


Title:
Industry should pay for desalinated water.

Publication:
[All Edition]; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Jan 14, 2001; pg. F.4

Abstract:
Recently I have read two interesting items in the Herald-Tribune about our water supply. One on Jan. 7 was titled (Peace River) "Water supply targeted for mine." The other one, about a week earlier, dealt with the future need for a desalination facility.In my opinion, forcing continued water-use cutbacks on the residential areas will never offset the amount of water used for mining and other commercial purposes.It makes sense to me for the county or the state to build a desalination plant and


Title:
Letter seals next steps for desalination plant.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Dec 2, 2000; pg. 4

Abstract:
Regulators say they'll start making decisions on the proposed plant. Hearings may start in March. State regulators say they have the last bits of information needed to make a decision on a controversial desalination project planned next to Tampa Electric Co.'s Big Bend Station on Hillsborough Bay. A letter deeming the developer's permit application complete went out Friday, kicking in a tentative timetable that could have a permit issued by spring, said Vince Seibold, industri


Publication:
[LATE TAMPA Edition]; JOSH ZIMMER; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Nov 17, 2000; pg. 3.B

Abstract:
S&W hopes to receive its discharge permit by March because the plant will take between 18 and 24 months to build, she said. The company has most of the 21 permits it needs. DEP is aware of S&W's concern but cannot begin reviewing the application without the additional information, said application review team member Vince Seibold. The agency wants a copy of the modeling software used to show new salinity levels would not harm the environment immediately surrounding the plant. Except for the model controversy, S&W has answered most of DEP's questions, Seibold said. "The underlying issue is access to their science," he said.


Title:
Water desalination project gets new engineering firm.

Publication:
[STATE / SUNCOAST Edition]; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Jan 23, 2001; pg. 3.B

Abstract:
S&W Water, the principal contractor on the planned 25-million- gallon-a-day seawater desalination plant in southeast Hillsborough County, announced Monday it had selected Ogden Energy Group of Fairfield, N.J., as the new engineering firm on the...


Title:
As water supply dries up, irresponsibility still flows.

Publication:
Series: GUEST COLUMN; [STATE Edition]; Gilliam Clarke; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Dec 24, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
Some of the real culprits in this crisis are: water rates that do not penalize excessive use; automatic sprinkling systems that run even when it's raining; homeowners associations whose bylaws require lawns of St. Augustine grass and sue if the grass doesn't meet a certain standard; the lack of unpopular local ordinances dealing with the enormous waste of potable water; folks who refuse to consider using reclaimed water cleansed to meet potable standards; people who refuse to obey any law or ordinance because no one is going to tell them what to do; developers who remove all the trees so they can lay sod; and folks who fight the development of new drinking water sources (talk about DUH!). In other words, it's all of us."Not in my back yard" groups that rise up to sue against development of non-rainfall-dependent sources of potable water are irresponsible. Although eminent scientists have studied Tampa Bay and found that a desalination plant will not degrade the bay, organized resistance keeps fighting the production of water. Everyone is going to hurt a little, but not to the extent of citizens in Pasco, where the entire county continues to be degraded from groundwater production.Most of us are not native to this state. We carry in our minds the distorted picture of Florida that the tourism gurus have painted: white sand beaches, clean blue sky, swaying palms, acres of lawn and golf courses stretching into infinity. In this part of the state, it's all a mirage. Reality is sandy soil that doesn't hold water and has few nutrients, palmetto hammocks, scrubby oaks, cypress wetlands (almost a thing of the past) and a jungle of what are considered to be weeds. Attempts to make the mirage a reality will finally produce a landscape marked by sinkholes and dead vegetation. We are destroying our own habitat by profligate waste.


Title:
Study: Desalination won't unbalance Bay.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; NEIL JOHNSON; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Oct 31, 2000; pg. 1

Abstract:
TAMPA - A study commissioned by a desalination contractor says the plant and other water projects won't harm Tampa Bay. Taking water from rivers and injecting 19 million gallons of brine each day into Tampa Bay won't upset the estuary's fragile balance of fresh and salt water, according to a University of South Florida study. That's been the biggest concern about ambitious projects to provide more than 90 million gallons a day of drinking water in the Tampa Bay area. Those projects include (


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Apr 19, 2000; pg. 4

Abstract:
TAMPA - Anticipating that the state could decide whether to permit a controversial desalination plant on Tampa Bay by August, Hillsborough consultants are hustling to get a study of water supply projects completed by July. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection has said it has no deadline for making its decision. But Mark Farrell, a consultant to the county's Water Resource Team, told county commissioners Tuesday that desalination plant developer S&W Water notified regional water


Title:
Outside study OK'd on desal plant effects.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 23, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
TAMPA - In the end, the yellow shirts got what they wanted - sort of. About 20 people wearing Save Our Bays and Canals T-shirts waited nearly four hours Tuesday to hear Hillsborough County commissioners vote for an independent study of the potential environmental effects of pinching freshwater flows while also dumping salty brine from a desalination plant near Apollo Beach into Tampa Bay. Almost an hour of that was spent debating just how to make sure, as Commissioner Pat Frank put it, the s


Title:
SUPPLIES AND DEMANDS Water plans make waves.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; SUSAN M. GREEN; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Apr 17, 2000; pg. 1

Abstract:
TAMPA - Projects aimed at resolving the area's water problems are drawing the wrath of various groups. In a place like Florida, once the butt of jokes about swampland real estate and liquid sunshine, you wouldn't think people would get that worked up over water. But in the Tampa Bay area, water - where and how to get it, who and what consumes it - has kept public interest simmering longer than any other issue some veterans of the public stage can remember. In Hillsborough County alone, at


Publication:
[LATE TAMPA Edition]; ALISA ULFERTS; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Apr 18, 2000; pg. 3.B

Abstract:
Tampa Bay Water board members expected to see a $265,000 contract to study the feasibility of pumping another 4-million gallons of groundwater a day from the Cypress Bridge area.  So when utility staffers instead asked them to approve a $950,138 contract during Tampa Bay Water's Monday meeting, board members balked and ordered staff back to the negotiating table.  Hillsborough County Commissioner Ronda Storms agreed and said that the water board's decision last week to seek a second seawater desalination plant for the area was intended to eliminate the need for groundwater projects such as the proposed Cypress Bridge II well field in Pasco County.


Publication:
[STATE Edition]; ANNE LINDBERG; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Dec 1, 2000; pg. 3

Abstract:
Tampa Bay Water supplies drinking water to Pinellas, Pasco and Hillsborough counties, and several cities, including St. Petersburg. Pinellas Park buys its water from the county. Most of the water that Tampa Bay Water uses comes from 11 facilities in Pasco and north Hillsborough counties. Those facilities deliver as much as 158-million gallons of water each day, but the supply is dwindling. Tampa Bay Water has to cut back usage in the next few years. By 2007, the utility will be allowed to pump only 90- million gallons of water a day from those wells. One way to cut back, utility officials say, is to clean up brackish water. So Tampa Bay Water has been searching for places to drill wells and build small desalination plants.


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; JAN HOLLINGSWORTH; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Apr 14, 2000; pg. 4

Abstract:
Tampa Bay's scientific community seeks to close the gaps in information about proposed water projects. Florida's top environmental regulator declined last month to commission an independent study that would address the cumulative impacts on Tampa Bay of a proposed desalination plant and other planned water supply projects. But David Struhs, head of the state Department of Environmental Protection, agreed in a March 23 letter to area residents "to consider information ... provided by a credib (


Title:
More about conserving our water resources.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 5, 2000; pg. 3

Abstract:
Thank you for your excellent editorial "Something must be done for the lower Hillsborough River" (Feb. 26); also for the cartoon by Stayskal depicting the dried-up river bed ready to be paved over for a road. It is difficult to fathom the thinking of those who bemoan long and loud the drying up of lakes and wetlands but see nothing wrong with destroying our river. And now, when we are finally going to get a desalination facility, where is it going to be located? On the Gulf Coast, where the di


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Apr 8, 2000; pg. 14

Abstract:
The nine members of the Tampa Bay Water board are expected to decide Monday whether to proceed with its $600 million master water plan, designed to develop new water sources to meet the region's needs. Tampa Bay Water officials are in a hurry to implement the plan, which includes a 1,100-acre reservoir in south Hillsborough, where water from the Alafia and Hillsborough rivers, as well as from the Tampa Bypass Canal, will be diverted; a desalination plant; and new wellfields in Hillsborough and


Title:
Water suppliers must coordinate to meet area needs, council says.

Publication:
[CHARLOTTE Edition]; Rodney Crouther STAFF WRITER; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Jan 12, 2001; pg. BCE.7

Abstract:
The scattershot network of water suppliers across Southwest Florida must forge tighter links to meet the demands of growth, water managers said Thursday.A two-year drought has highlighted concerns that there may not be enough water to accommodate the number of people moving into the area."It was forecasted 26 years ago that there wasn't enough water in the Peace River to meet the population demands," said Wayne Daltry, executive director of the Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council.Back th


Publication:
[All Edition]; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Jan 5, 2001; pg. A.12

Abstract:
The Southwest Florida Water Management District continues to push for construction of an $86 million desalination plant in Sarasota County, even though many serious questions remain unanswered.Who can justify use of such expensive water? The production cost of the water alone will be $3.45 per thousand gallons. The real price will approach or exceed $5 when construction and environmental safeguard costs are included.Why are up to four desalination plants, each making 20 million gallons per day


Title:
State agency won't sponsor desal review.

Publication:
[SOUTH PINELLAS Edition]; DAVID KARP; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Mar 24, 2000; pg. 9.B

Abstract:
The state DEP will not convene outside experts to study the effects of a plant on Tampa Bay. David Struhs, secretary of the state Department of Environmental Protection, said Thursday he wouldn't convene an independent panel to study how the proposed $100-million desalination plant could change the bay.  But Struhs promised to accept any studies done by outside experts if another government agency wants to convene a panel to look at the proposed plant. The facility would produce about 25-million gallons of water a day by converting seawater into drinking water.


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; NEIL JOHNSON and JAN HOLLINGSWORTH; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 24, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
The state's decision leaves the question of who would study the effect on Tampa Bay. The state has decided not to appoint a panel of scientists to study what a number of water supply projects, including a desalination plant, will do to Tampa Bay. Hillsborough County commissioners and others wanted the Department of Environmental Protection to require the study, fearing plans to take water from rivers coupled with brine concentrate from the desalination plant would harm the Bay. Those conce


Publication:
[SOUTH PINELLAS Edition]; JEAN HELLER; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Oct 31, 2000; pg. 1.B

Abstract:
There is an increase in salinity (1.3 parts per thousand) at the point of discharge for the desalination plant, which is well within the normal changes of salinity throughout the year," the study concluded. "Adjacent to the concentrate discharge, the salinity increase dissipates rapidly to normal levels."  A study of biological impacts of freshwater diversions from the rivers and McKay Bay, done for Tampa Bay Water, the region's largest water utility, found that salinity fluctuations in the bay would extend to the tributaries, but the changes would be small and not persistent.  The Janicki study developed a system for monitoring the Hillsborough, Alafia and Lower Palm rivers and McKay Bay at the top of Hillsborough Bay to detect changes in flow, water levels, salinity, impacts on bottom-dwelling animals and plants, fish, and plankton at a cost to Tampa Bay Water of $215,000.


Publication:
Anonymous; The Futurist, Washington; Nov/Dec 2000; Vol. 34, Iss. 6; pg. 7, 1 pgs

Abstract:
There's more than one way to make seawater drinkable, according to several French companies that have invested heavily in desalination technology in the Mediterranean and Middle East. About two-thirds of desalination plants around the world rely on thermal distillation techniques1 and one-third of the market uses membrane techniques of reverse osmosis. On the island of Majorca, off the east coast of Spain, one of the largest desalination plants in Europe meets drinking water demands by using the process of reverse osmosis. Seawater at the plant is pretreated by coagulation and filtration in order to eliminate particles in suspension; it is then forced through racks of semipermeable membranes. Equipment for the reverse osmosis desalination system is compact, modular, and easily automated. The process offers high energy efficiency and low environmental impact. In the more-popular thermal process of multiple effect distillation (MED), seawater is heated in several evaporator-condensers installed in series; this allows the latent heat of condensation to be reused. Multiple effect distillation technology is a reliable desalination system with relatively low operating costs. It can also process low-quality water, which means less treatment of seawater before operation. Desalination technology has boosted the supply of drinking water in areas that have very low rainfall and sparse reserves of fresh water that have traditionally been used for agriculture. In the Canary Islands, desalination supplies 76% to 80% of the drinking water for Las Palmas, Spain's eighth largest city with 370,000 inhabitants. "Costs are decreasing as the movement toward privatization continues," according to Philippe Kessler, president of Sidem, a subsidiary of Vivendi, a French company that specializes in thermal desalination. "These changes increasingly enable municipalities and companies to consider desalination as a viable solution for their water requirements," he says. About 1% of the world's production of drinking water is supplied by 12,500 desalination plants. The reduced costs of new desalination equipment could double the global market in the field to more than $70 billion by 2020, according to Vivendi.


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; WILL RODGERS; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Feb 21, 2000; pg. 1

Abstract:
Two desalination plants would help the region reach mandated reductions in groundwater pumping. Pasco County commissioners' recent declaration that they would welcome a large desalination plant is making the kind of waves they hoped it would. The company that first proposed building a 25 million-gallon-per-day desalination plant next to Florida Power Corp.'s Anclote Power Plant is interested. The state and two local chapters of the Sierra Club agree with the idea. And the compa


Title:
City to hear desalination options Swiftmud will brief the City Council on plans to develop water sources and how Venice might fit in.

Publication:
[VENICE Edition]; Jeff Scullin STAFF WRITER; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Dec 12, 2000; pg. BV.1

Abstract:
Venice officials hope today won't be the last time they discuss with the Southwest Florida Water Management District the possibility of locating a desalination plant in the city.That idea first surfaced in July, after the water management district issued a report identifying Venice as one of four possible sites for a future desalination plant.The district, also known as Swiftmud, views sea water desalination -- a process that extracts the salt from sea water to transform it into drinkable water


Title:
Swiftmud eyes a regional approach The water district says building a desalination plant should involve a coalition of partners.

Publication:
[VENICE Edition]; Jeff Scullin STAFF WRITER; Sarasota Herald Tribune, Sarasota, Fla.; Dec 13, 2000; pg. BV.1

Abstract:
Venice officials learned Tuesday that they probably will not head any effort to build a sea water desalination plant in Venice and that the cost of water produced there would be considerably more than originally reported.Any plan to build such a plant locally would have a better chance of being funded if it involved a coalition of regional partners, headed by the Peace River-Manasota Regional Water Supply Authority, an official with the Southwest Florida Water Management District told the Ci


Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Dec 26, 2000; pg. 12

Abstract:
Want an idea of how severe the region's water shortage is? The Hillsborough County Commission, normally eager for new business and industrial development, has postponed a decision on a plan to build a sulfur-melting plant on Hillsborough Bay solely because of the water shortage. Commissioner Ronda Storms told the developer: "I'm not prepared to support any new projects at all that use, even for a short amount of time, potable water." Her concerns and the audience's enthusiastic response were


Title:
Desal hearing does little to ease worries.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; FRANK SARGEANT; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 1, 2000; pg. 3

Abstract:
We'll have to wait and see. That was the message from state Department of Environmental Protection director David Struhs, who took the time to come to East Bay High on Monday and listen to as many worried residents and anglers as could be fitted intoa 21/2-hour hearing on the proposed desalination plant at Big Bend. More than 80 people signed up to speak, though most didn't get the chance. Most asked Struhs and his staff for an environmental impact statement prepared by the state. Though Tam


Title:
Implementing water policy in Pasco County.

Publication:
[FINAL Edition]; GILLIAM CLARKE; Tampa Tribune, Tampa, Fla.; Mar 10, 2000; pg. 2

Abstract:
When Pasco County commissioners agreed last month on a policy that would have the county oppose more groundwater withdrawals and encourage desalination, we made real progress. In Pasco's long history with West Coast Regional Water Supply Authority, now Tampa Bay Water, there has been no policy on water, and our representatives did as they chose. This approach has been disastrous for the county. At the February meeting of Tampa Bay Water, Pasco Commissioner Steve Simon tried, to no avail, to op


Title:
Tied to TECO plant, desalination project unable to build support.

Publication:
[LATE TAMPA Edition]; JEAN HELLER; St. Petersburg Times, St. Petersburg, Fla.; Mar 9, 2000; pg. 4.B

Abstract:
While residents have plenty of questions about desal's impact on the environment, they also suspect that the desal plant, which will dilute its brine discharge in TECO's cooling water, will be used as justification for the electric plant to continue operations for another 30 years.  The depth of their resentment became apparent last week when Secretary David Struhs of the state Department of Environmental Protection listened for several hours to public opinion about the desal project, which needs permits from his department. He got a bigger earful about TECO and its history of polluting the air and water than about desalination.  "Having desal tied to TECO is hurting it, no question," said [Billy] Nobles. "They're going to build a $100-million desal plant and tie it to a dirty, coal-burning electric plant that's already obsolete. I just don't think that makes a whole lot of sense."


Title:
California turns seaward to slake thirst for water


Title:
Emirate's First Bot Project Links Power to Desalination.

Publication:
ENR, New York; February 28, 2000; Vol. 244, Iss. 8; pg. 21


Title:
Local Officials Push Plan To Get Water From Gulf.

Publication:
By Brad Reagan; Wall Street Journal, New York, N.Y.; Apr 5, 2000; Eastern edition; pg. T.1


Title:
Salton Sea Agency Tests High-Speed Turbo-Mist Dewatering Equipment in California.

Publication:
Paul Rosta; ENR, New York; March 13, 2000; Vol. 244, Iss. 10; pg. 37


Title:
San Antonio May Tap Gulf Coast For Groundwater.

Publication:
Wall Street Journal, New York, N.Y.; Oct 4, 2000; Eastern edition; pg. T.2


Title:
Sea water desalinization plant considered for Dow.

Publication:
Don Richards; Chemical Market Reporter, New York; Jan 8, 2001; Vol. 259, Iss. 2; pg. 5, 2 pgs


Title:
Water purification and filtration in the Kingdom: Rising demand with expanding use of systems.

Publication:
Anonymous; Middle East Executive Reports, Washington; Apr 2000; Vol. 23, Iss. 4; pg. 12


Title:
Jupiter’s Solution to Concentrate Disposal

Publication:
Proc. of IDA World Conference on Desalination and Water Reuse. Washington, D.C.: IDA

Abstract:
With increasing water demands in South Florida, utilities are moving toward the use of brackish water aquifers to supplement public drinking water supplies. The Town of Jupiter recognized that its fresh water supply was limited and elected to tap the Floridan aquifer, a brackish water supply in South Florida, as an alternate raw water source. A 6.O-MGD reverse osmosis (RO) water treatment plant, the largest of its kind in southeast Florida, was designed to treat this brackish water supply. The RO treatment process generates two streams of water: the permeate, the water stream suitable for water supply after post-treatment; the concentrate, the waste stream by-product or reject water. Concentrate water from the RO water treatment process is considered by the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation (DER) to be an industrial wastewater. The concentrate water is typically too high in chlorides to be reused as an irrigation water. Consequently, other means of disposal must be considered. The Town of Jupiter faced two options for disposal of RO concentrate water: disposal by deep injection well or surface discharge. Jupiter secured a permit for both and elected to address disposal by surface discharge.


Author:
Orlando, S.P. Jr., L.P. Rozas, G.H. Ward, and C.J. Klein.

Title:
Salinity characteristics of Gulf of Mexico estuaries

Publication:
NOAA Office of Ocean Resources Conservat. Assess. Silver Spring, MD.  209 pp.


Title:
The past, present, and future of manatees in the southeastern United States: Realities, misunderstandings, and enigmas.  (pp. 184-204 in R.R. Odom, D.A. Riddleberger, J.C. Ozier,editors)

Publication:
Proceeding 3rd southeastern nongame and endangered wildlife symposium.  Georigia DNR, Game and Fish Division, Social Circle, Georgia.  253 pp.


Title:
Florida manatees:  distribution, geographically referenced data sets, and ecological and behavioral aspects of habitat use.  (Pp. 11-22 J.E. Renyolds III, and K.D, Haddad, editors)

Publication:
Report of the workshop on GIS as an aid to managing habitat for the West Indian manatees in Florida and Georgia.  Florida Marine Research Publicaion 49:1-57


Title:
Reproduction and early-age survival of manatees at Blue Spring, Upper St. Johns River, Florida.  (O'Shea, T.J., B.B. Ackerman, and H.F. Percival, editors)

Abstract:
We summarize reproduction of adults and survival of calves and subadult Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) that were identified in winter at Blue Spring on the upper St. Johns River in Florida. Some records span more than 20 years, but most are from 15-year continuous annual observations during winter 1978-79 through winter 1992-93. Fifty-seven, first-year calves were identified; 55 litter sizes were one, and one consisted of twins (1.79% of all births). Sex ratios of first-year calves did not significantly differ from 1:1. Based on 21 of 35 sighted females (15 individuals) that appeared pregnant and returned with calves during the subsequent winter, we estimated an early (neonatal to about 6 months) calf survival of 0.600. Based on estimations with a minimum-number-known-alive method, calf survival from the first to the second winter was at least 0.822, and subadult survival was 0.903 to the third, 0.958 to the fourth, 1.00 to the fifth, and 1.00 to the sixth winters. Seven females were observed from year of birth to their first winter with a nursing calf; the mean age at parturition to the first calf that survived to the next winter was 5.4 plus or minus 0.98 (SD) years. The estimated ages at first conception ranged from 3 to 6 years. The proportion of adult pregnant females was 0.410/year. Weaning was not observed in winter. Intervals between births averaged 2.60 plus or minus 0.81 years. The pooled proportion of adult females nursing first-winter calves was 0.303; the proportion of adult females nursing calves of any age was 0.407. These values do not significantly differ from those of manatees from the Crystal River or Atlantic Coast study areas. Anecdotal accounts are provided that suggested the existence of a pseudo estrus, an 11 to 13-month gestation, suppression of parturition in winter, and giving birth in quiet backwaters and canals.


Author:
O'Shea, T.J., J.F. Moore, and H.I. Kochman

Title:
Contaminant concentration in manatees in Florida


Title:
Behavior of Seawater Reverse Osmosis Brine Ocean Discharges

Abstract:
In 1991 the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) began a rigorous investigation of the co-production of electric power and desalinated water. This effort determined that reverse osmosis is the most economical and least intrusive technology for this purpose. It was also determined that while desalination of brackish water is widely practiced in the U.S., an increasing percentage of new desalination capacity will be seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO). Environmental issues related to disposal of the brine by-product of SWRO were identified as the most difficult technological issue impeding the utilization of desalination as a widely applicable resource for developing new water supplies for chronically water short areas of the United States. Returning the brine to the ocean source waters was determined to be the most practical approach to brine disposal for the relatively large SWRO plants anticipated for future applications. Characterizing the behavior of brine discharge plumes requires a fundamental understanding of dilution and mixing phenomena if permitting of brine discharges is to be achieved. Accordingly, EPRI’s Community Environmental Center, in cooperation with various water and electric utilities in Florida, California and Hawaii conducted a major effort to develop a PC-based computer code to predict brine discharge behavior in coastal water bodies. The project consisted of the following steps: Modification of the CORMIX code to handle negatively buoyancy discharge plumes; Verification of the B-CORMIIX code; Application of B-CORMIX to specific sites; ldentification of additional areas of concern. Two sites on the island of Oahu, where co-discharge of brine and treated sewage effluent is being considered, were evaluated with B-CORMIX. Results indicate that seasonal variations in ocean temperatures have significant influence on discharge plume behavior. The project results provide the prospective SWRO facility owner and operator with techniques and tools to facilitate a successful permitting application. The output of the B-CORMIX code should provide assurance to regulatory authorities that brine can be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner.


Author:
Paquina, P.R. , R.C. Santoreb, K.B. Wua, P.J. Anida, C.D. Kavvadasa and D.M. Di Toroa

Title:
Revisiting the aquatic impacts of copper discharged by water-cooled copper alloy condensers used by power and desalination  plants.

Publication:
Environmental Science & Policy. V. 3, Supplement 1.  Pages 165-174


Title:
Direct enumeration of viruses in Tampa Bay and Surrounding Waters.  In: Tampa Basis 2, Treat, S.F.; Clark, P.A. editors.


Title:
Attachment C.  Tampa Bypass Canal/Alafia River water supply projects hydrobiological monitoring program (HBMP).

Publication:
Prepared by PBS&J for Tampa Bay Water.  August 1999


Title:
Tampa Bypass Canal/Alafia River water supply projects hydrobiological monitoring program (HBMP).


Title:
Assessment of potential impacts on biological communities of McKay Bay from proposed reduction in freshwater inflow from the Tampa Bypass Canal.

Publication:
Prepared by PBS&J for Tampa Bay Water.  November 1998


Title:
Assessment of the effects of reductions in freshwater inflow on the biological communities of the Lower Alafia River


Title:
Fish nursery use of the Little Manatte River Estuary (Florida): Relationships with freshwater discharge.

Publication:
Dept. of Marine Science, Univ. of South Florida at St. Petersburg, Florida.  Prepared for  SWFWMD.


Author:
Peebles, E.B., J.R. Hall, and S.G. Tolley.

Title:
Egg production by the Bay Anchovy Anchoa mitchilli in relation to adult and larval prey fields.


Author:
Peebles, E.B., M.S. Flannery, R.E. Matheson, Jr., and J.P. Rast

Title:
Fish nursery utilization of the Little Manatee River Estuary:  Relationships to physicochemical gradients and the distribution of food resources.  In: Tampa Basis 2, Treat, S.F.; Clark, P.A. editors.


Title:
Pretreatment and Operating Experience on Reverse Osmosis Plants in the Middle East


Title:
A dye release study in the proposed organism return canal at Big Bend Station. (Edited by Taft, W.E. and S. Mahadevan)

Publication:
A technical report submitted to TECO by Mote Marine Laboratory.  61 pp.


Title:
Observations on the ecology and distribution of the Florida seagrasses.

Publication:
Fla. Board Conserv.Mar. Lab. Prof. Pap. Ser. 2:1-72.  72pp.


Title:
An Innovative Solution to Blend Membrane Softening By-Product with Secondary Wastewater Effluent for Golf Course Irrigation

Abstract:
A creative approach allowed blending of membrane softening by-product water with secondary treated wastewater with post chlorination for subsequent use at several golf courses. The blend allowed TDS and Chloride concentrations to be sufficiently reduced to offer acceptable quality for irrigation purposes. One Florida Water Management agency provided grant funds to partially offset the construction costs for the blend water transmission pipeline. The approach reduced treatment costs and offered another option for by-product water utilization.


Author:
Pontius, F. W., Kawczynski, E., and Koorse, S. J.

Title:
Regulations governing membrane concentrate disposal

Publication:
Journal AWWA, Vol. 88, No. 5, pp. 44-52.

Abstract:
Membrane concentrate disposal is regulated under several federal laws, and state and local governments may impose additional requirements. Regulatory requirements are complex, and in many cases, the federal-state-local regulatory maze can be perplexing. The method or methods used for membrane disposal determine which regulatory requirements must be met. A comprehensive regulatory compliance strategy ensures that the appropriate permitting and other regulatory requirements are met. With careful planning, membrane concentrate disposal can be done in an environmentally acceptable way that satisfies all regulatory requirements.


Title:
Toxicity Testing of Brackish Concentrate-Do Current Regulations Apply?

Abstract:
Discharge to surface waters for disposal of concentrate from a membrane separation process requires point source discharge permits under at least Federal regulations (NPDES) and usually State and/or local regulations. These permits generally require that discharges not contain toxic substances in toxic amounts. Toxicity is currently determined by the bioassay testing process with whole effluent (undiluted concentrate) and with specifically prescribed standard test organisms. In Florida, toxicity is defined as 1/3 of the concentration lethal to 50% of the test organisms in 96 hours of exposure (1/3 LC50). Concentrate from a 6.0 MGD Reverse Osmosis Treatment Plant in Jupiter, Florida was found to be toxic to the Possum Shrimp (Mysidopsis bahia) according to the 1 / 3 LC50 definition. The plant treats 8.0 MGD of brackish water drawn from the confined Floridan Aquifer, producing 6.0 MGD of potable water and 2.0 MGD of concentrate at approximately 20,000 PPM TDS. More than 30 bioassay tests and extensive chemical analyses were conducted with the concentrate in an effort to identify a specific toxic element or elements. This extensive testing and analysis did not reveal the presence of toxic substances in the concentrate. Literature review and specific bioassay testing indicated that the test organism, Mysidopsis bahia is very sensitive to ion concentrations and ion ratios. This research indicated that the mortality observed in bioassay tests was a result of the ionic concentrations and ratios of the concentrate being considerably different than those of natural sea water. The result of this research suggests that current bioassay testing procedures do not produce valid results for whole effluent brackish concentrates. Since these testing procedures are the only acceptable means of demonstrating the absence of toxicity to regulatory agencies, discharge of concentrate to surface waters will not be evaluated fairly. Consequently, this very cost-effective means of reusing concentrate is generally not available to water supply systems planning to use membrane separation technology.


Title:
Memorandum report on brine plume and physical oceanographic charateristics for the proposed Big Hill Brine Disposal Site.

Publication:
Report to DOE, Civil Engineering Dept.  Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.


Title:
Reclaiming Reverse  Osmosis Blowdown with  Electrodialysis Reversal

Publication:
Desalination, Vol. 78, No. 1, p 77-89, July 1990


Title:
Distribution and abundance of the West Indian manatee, Trichechus manatus, around selected Florida power plants following winter cold fronts (1995-1996).

Abstract:
Ten one-day aerial surveys were conducted in winter, 1984-85, to assess manatee distribution and abundance around five Florida Power and Light Company (FPL) plants: Cape Canaveral (PCC), Riviera (PRV), Port Everglades (PPE), Lauderdale (PFL) and Fort Myers (PFM). A total of 3804 manatees was observed, with a maximum of 636 animals for a single survey. Individual surveys for 1984-84 produced higher combined counts for all plants than in previous years. Maximum counts for PRV, PPE and PFM were the highest recorded for those particular plants. The maximum count for PCC in 1984-85 was lower than counts from most previous years, and the maximum from PFL was intermediate, relative to maxima from previous years. The counts along the east coast of Florida probably reflected a southward redistribution of manatees as well as very cold January weather after warm December conditions. The high count at PFM probably resulted from cold January weather and surface resting behavior by the manatees which made them more visible than usual. Calves represented 10 x 3% of the animals observed near the FPL plants and in Hobe Sound. PFM had a higher percentage of calves than did other plants.


Author:
Riley, J J ; Fitzsimmons, K M ; Glenn, E P

Title:
Halophyte irrigation: An overlooked strategy for  management of  membrane filtration  concentrate

Publication:
Desalination vol. 110, no. 3, pp. 197-211

Abstract:
It is argued that the preferred paradigm for utilizing membrane filtration concentrate conceptually, and legally in Arizona, is to view it as an agricultural water management opportunity rather than a wastewater disposal problem. Halophyte farms irrigated with concentrate at a 5% leaching rate are projected to be productive for over 100 y in southern Arizona without affecting the quality of the underlying groundwater any more than conventional agriculture. The authors recommend that halophyte irrigation be included in the management options for membrane filtration concentrate at current and future sites.


Author:
Rutherford, E.S., T. Schmidt, and J. Tilmant.

Title:
The early life history of Spotted Seatrout, Red Drum, Grey Snapper, and Snook in Everglades National Park, Florida

Publication:
South Florida Research Center Report.  SFRC-86/07


Author:
Saltonstall, C.W., Jr., and R.W. Lawrence

Title:
Calculation of the Expected Performance of Reverse Osmosis Plants


Title:
Manatee use of power plants effluents in Brevard County, Florida.


Title:
Final Report:  Application of a three-dimensional circulation model to Tampa Bay to support water quality modeling.

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #04-95.  Prepared by: University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.


Title:
On hydrodynamics and water quality dynamics in Tampa Bay.  Treat, S.F. (editor)


Title:
Notes on habits, systematic characters, and life histories of Texas salt water cyprinodontes.


Title:
Disposal of  Concentrate from Brackish Water Desalting Plants by Use of Deep Injection Wells

Publication:
Desalination, Vol. 78, No. 1, p 41-47, July 1990

Abstract:
The conventional method of disposal of the concentrate from reverse osmosis plants in Florida has been discharge to a brackish surface water body. In Florida, however, the distance to saline water bodies and regulatory constraints can resist this type of disposal. Under the appropriate site-specific conditions, deep injection wells can offer a feasible solution to disposing of concentrates from reverse osmosis plants. Deep injection well systems can be reliable, environmentally safe, and cost-effective. Regulations affecting deep injection wells and typical designs are discussed. The Englewood (Florida) Water District deep injection well is described in detail. Instrumentation for this injection well disposal system includes continuous flow and pressure recorders plus sampling of the monitor well on a weekly, monthly, and quarterly basis. There has been considerable experience with deep injection wells for the disposal of treated wastewater effluents in the state, so that deep injection wells are a proven technology for South Florida.


Title:
Use of Solar Ponds in the  Disposal of Desalting  Concentrate

Publication:
Desalination, Vol. 78, No. 1, p 59-70, July 1990


Author:
Smith, D. A.; Beach, M. H.; Kelley, G. M.

Title:
Feasibility of a saltwater barrier injection well system - Manatee, Sarasota, Charlotte Counties, Florida

Abstract:
The idea of creating a hydraulic barrier to saltwater intrusion using injection wells has merit and should be implemented where the hydrogeologic framework and source water availability combine to make the concept feasible. Unfortunately, along the coast of Manatee, Sarasota, and Charlotte Counties, the hydrogeologic framework and hydraulic setting of the Floridan aquifer are such that the proposed saltwater barrier project is not feasible. The most important element of the hydrogeologic framework that makes a barrier not feasible in the project area, is that relatively high heads are already present in the Floridan aquifer along most of the coast in this area. In the southern part of the Southwest Florida Water Management District, the Floridan aquifer contains poor quality water not because of lateral saltwater intrusion, but because of the presence of connate or relict sea water that has not been completely flushed out of the aquifer. A second concern that may make the proposal unworkable is a possibility of the barrier causing a decline in the quality of water in the intermediate aquifer system. In the coastal area south of Manatee County, most public supplies obtained from ground water are obtained from the intermediate aquifer system. Very near the coast, the intermediate aquifer system is showing effects of lateral saltwater intrusion due to heavy pumpage in the intermediate. However, because the Floridan aquifer potent iometric levels are higher than the levels in the intermediate system everywhere along the proposed boundary, upward leakage of mineralized water from the Floridan is also contributing to poor water quality in the intermediate, and raising the head in the Floridan would increase the upward leakage.Although the project is not feasible for the Floridan aquifer, smaller segments of a saltwater barrier may be appropriate, most likely in the intermediate system in parts of the area that are heavily pumped for public supply. A smaller scale barrier, similar in scope to successful projects in other regions, would be appropriate because the portions of the coastline that are the most populous and thus have the highest water demand, are also the portions that would have the largest and most proximal source of treated wastewater.Smaller scale feasibility projects should be examined in detail, and should use solute transport modeling with very fine model grid spacing.


Title:
Final Report on the marine environmental impact of the Watlington Water Works Reverse Osmosis Plant.

Publication:
Bermuda Bilogical Station for Research, Inc.  20p.


Title:
Natural gas fired cogeneration and desalination


Title:
An ecological study of the fishes of the Tampa Bay Area St. Petersburg, Fl.

Publication:
Florida State Board. Conserv. Mar. Res. Lab. Prof. Paper Ser. 1:1-104.  FMRI


Author:
Squire, D ; Murrer, J ; Holden, P ; Fitzpatrick, C

Title:
Disposal of reverse osmosis membrane concentrate

Publication:
Desalination vol. 108, no. 1-3 pp. 143-147; Second annual meeting of the european desalination society on desalination and the environment held in Genoa, Italy, October 20-23, 1996

Abstract:
Anglian Water have built a reverse osmosis softening/iron and manganese removal plant at Bunwell water treatment works, Norfolk, UK. Bunwell is a 3,500 m super(3)/d borehole source. The on-site treatment is aeration followed by chlorination and rapid gravity sand filtration for iron and manganese removal. The membrane plant produces 430 m super(3)/d of permeate at 82% recovery, thus also producing 50 m super(3)/d of concentrate. The concentrate is blended with settled backwash water from the sand filters and the blend is discharged to a surface water. The disposal of the concentrate was one of the main factors influencing the feasibility of this membrane application and will remain a factor for further applications. An increase in environmental awareness and more stringent regulations may restrict disposal options in the future. Anglian Water are investigating membranes for a variety of applications which will produce different concentrates and associated disposal problems.


Author:
Squires, A.P., A.J. Janicki, and H. Greening (eds.)

Title:
Tampa Bay Environmental Monitoring Report 1992-1993

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Tech Pub #15-96


Title:
Conversion of desalination plant brines to solids

Publication:
W.L. Badger Associates, Inc.  [Washington] : U.S. Dept. of the Interior ; [for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off.] 1971 vii, 119 p. : ill., maps ; 26 cm.


Author:
State of California, Department of Water Resources, Division of Planning

Publication:
State of California, Department of Water Resources, Division of Planning


Title:
Some taxonomic and biologic aspects of toxic dinoflagellates.


Publication:
Academic Press, Inc.,  Orlando, Florida.  pp. 202-249


Title:
Proceedings Tampa Bay area scientific information symposium:  Phytoplankton of Tampa Bay - A review.

Publication:
Report No. 65. Bellweather Press. pp. 147-183


Author:
Steidinger, K. A., E.W. Truby, J.K. Jarrett, and J.M. Burkholder

Title:
The morphology and cytology of a newly discovered toxic dinoflagellate.

Publication:
Harmful Marine Algai Blooms.  pp. 82 - 89.


Author:
Steward, R.P., C.A. Dunn, and T. Cardinale.

Title:
Hydrographic conditions and dissolved oxygen status for the Tampa Bay Estuarine System (September - October 1993-1996).

Publication:
Environmental Protection Commission of Hillsborough County (EPCHC), Tampa, FL.


Title:
State-of-the-Art Report: Injection of Hazardous Wastes Into Deep Wells

Publication:
Ada, Okla.: Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory


Title:
Studies on the biology of the pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum Burkenroad, in Everglades National Park, FL.

Publication:
Fla. Board Conserv.Mar. Lab. Prof. Pap. Ser. 37.  32pp.


Title:
Benthic Infauna of Tampa Bay Summer 1993, Final Report

Publication:
Tampa Bay National Estuary Program Technical Publication #02-95;.. St. Petersburg. Florida


Author:
Tomas, C.R., M. Montresor, and E. Tosti.

Title:
Nutrient and temperature effects on growth and sexual phases of four marine dinoflagellates.

Publication:
Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.,  Red Tides: Biology, Environmental Science, and Toxicology.  pp. 293-294.


Author:
Trans-Texas Water Program (Southeast Area)

Publication:
Sabine River Authority of Texas, Lower Neches Valley Authority, San Jacinto River Authority, City of Houston, Brazos River Authority, Texas Water Development Board.


Title:
Supplemental draft environmental impact report/statement II.  Monterey Peninsula Water Suppy Project.


Title:
Summary of Desalination Plant Brine Disposal Methods for Inland Locations

Publication:
Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office


Author:
U.S. Department of the Interior.  Bureau of Reclamation

Title:
Disposal of Brine Effluents From Desalting Plants

Abstract:
In the review and bibliography, the technical literature was reviewed for information on all parts of the program on surface facilities for disposal of desalting plant effluents. A survey of 50 states and the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration on water pollution regulations pertaining to surface facilities for disposal of desalting plant effluents is appended to the review. The bibliography contains 870 references. References are indexed and cross referenced according to 18 subject areas.


Author:
U.S. Department of the Interior.  Office of Saline Water

Title:
Disposal of Brine by Solar Evaporation: Field Experiments


Author:
U.S. Dept of Interior, Bureau of Reclaimation, Water Treatment Engineering & Research Group (WaTER)

Title:
Water Desalination and Water Purification Research and Development Program


Title:
Discharge, water-quality characteristics, and nutrient loads from McKay Bay, Delaney Creek, and East Bay, Tampa, Florida, 1991-1993

Publication:
U.S.G.S. Water Resources Investigation Report 95-4167.   Prepared in cooperation with the Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council.   TPNEP #06-94


Author:
United States Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station

Title:
Model studies of outfall systems for desalination plants.  Part 1. Flume study of the mixing characteristics of dense jets discharged into a flowing fluid.

Publication:
Volume 1.  Research Rept. H-71-2. August 1971.   U.S. Army Eng. Wat. Exp.Sta., Vicksburg, Mississippi.  57p.

Abstract:
FLUME STUDIES WERE CONDUCTED TO EVALUATE THE DEGREE OF MIXING ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE USE OF A DIFFUSER LOCATED ON THE ESTUARY OR OCEAN FLOOR BEYOND THE SURF ZONE. THE DENSE BRINE IS DISCHARGED VERTICALLY THROUGH CIRCULAR PORTS INTO A UNIFORM AND STEADY CROSSCURRENT. THE PROTOTYPE CONDITIONS WHICH WERE MODELED OR SIMULATED WERE (A) 0.1 TO 1.0 KNOT AMBIENT VELOCITY, (B) 8 TO 20 FPS PORT DISCHARGE VELOCITIES, (C) DENSITY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BRINE AND AMBIENT FLUID OF 0.0045 TO 0.26 G/CC. AND (D) PORT DIAMETERS OF 3, 6 AND 9 INCHES. TESTS WERE CONDUCTED IN A 1:20-SCALE UNIFORM FLOW FLUME TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTS OF PORT DIAMETER, BRINE FLOW RATE, DENSITY DIFFERENTIAL AND AMBIENT VELOCITY ON THE GEOMETRY AND MIXING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DENSE JET DISCHARGED VERTICALLY THROUGH A SINGLE PORT. TESTS USING A MULTIPLE-PORT DIFFUSER VERIFIED THAT LINEAR SUPERPOSITION OF SINGLE-PORT RESULTS CAN BE USED TO PREDICT MULTIPLE-PORT MIXING CHARACTERISTICS. A MULTIPLE-PORT DIFFUSER HAS A SIGNIFICANT ADVANTAGE OVER A SIMPLE OUTFALL PIPE IN KEEPING HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF DISSOLVED IONS AWAY FROM THE OCEAN FLOOR.


Title:
Mixing zones: water quality standards, criteria digest: a compilation of state/federal criteria

Publication:
Washington, D. C.: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Regulations and Standards

Abstract:
This digest is compiled to provide general information to the public as well as to Federal, State, and local officials. It contains excerpts from the individual Federal-State water quality standards establishing pollutant specific criteria for interstate surface waters. The water quality standards program is implemented by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency where responsibility for providing water quality recommendations, approving State—adopted standards for interstate waters, evaluating adherence to the standards, and overseeing enforcement of standards compliance has been mandated by Congress.


Title:
Assessment of the potential impacts of the Tampa Bay Water surface water projects on Tampa Bay.

Publication:
Prepared by PBS&J and USF Dept. of Marine Science.  Sumitted to TBW.  November 1998.


Title:
Effects of air exposure on disiccation rate, hemoloymph chemistry and escape behavior of the Spiny Lobster, Panulirus argus.


Title:
Effects of heated effluent on density and diversity of benthic infauna at Big Bend, Tampa Bay, Florida.

Publication:
Univ. of South Florida, Master of Science Thesis.


Title:
Large scale construction in coastal environments conflict resolution strategies.

Publication:
1st International Symposium.  April 1997, Norderney Island, Germany:  93-103.


Title:
Deep Well Disposal of Concentrate: the Collier County, Florida Experience

Abstract:
The most cost-effective solution for concentrate disposal at the North Collier County, Florida Water Treatment Plant is deep well injection. This water treatment plant lies geographically at an inland location, which renders surface-water discharge to tidal water economically unfeasible. Two deep injection wells are used to dispose of the concentrate into a highly permeable aquifer, known as the “Boulder Zone.” Each well is capable of receiving the entire waste stream from the plant, thereby, providing full redundancy. The estimated total concentrate stream from the 12 MGD of membrane softening capacity and 8 MGD of reverse osmosis capacity in the plant is less than 5 MGD. The wells also serve as a backup for wet-season disposal of treated domestic wastewater from the North Collier Wastewater Treatment Plant. The dual use increases the overall cost-effectiveness of the wells, because the cost is spread over two rate bases.


Title:
IDA Worldwide Desalting Plants Inventory Report No. 12


Title:
Initial dilution study of Santa Barbara desalination plant brine discharge.


Title:
Model studies of outfall systems for desalination plants: part I: flume study of the mixing characteristics of dense jets discharged into a flowing fluid: volume 2: appendix C, jet geometry sketches: appendix D, dilution contour plots

Abstract:
Flume studies were conducted to evaluate the degree of mixing attainable through the use of a diffuser located on the estuary or ocean floor beyond the surf zone. The dense brine is discharged vertically through circular ports into a uniform and steady crosscurrent. The prototype conditions which were modeled or simulated were: 0.1 to 1.0 knot ambient velocity; 8 to 20 FPS port discharge velocities; density difference between brine and ambient fluid of 0.0045 to 0.26 g/cc.; and port diameters of 3, 6 and 9 inches. Tests were conducted in a 1:20-scale uniform flow flume to evaluate the effects of port diameter, brine flow rate, density differential and ambient velocity on the geometry and mixing characteristics of a dense jet discharged vertically through a single port. Tests using a multiple-port diffuser verified that linear superposition of single-port results can be used to predict multiple-port mixing characteristics. A multiple-port diffuser has a significant advantage over a simple outfall pipe in keeping high concentrations of dissolved ions away from the ocean floor.


Title:
Model studies of outfall systems for desalination plants: part II: tests of effluent dispersion in selected estuary models: volume 1: main text

Abstract:
Model studies were conducted to study the dispersion of heated waste brine from a desalting plant outfall. The existing fixed-bed models of San Diego Bay, Galveston Bay, and Delaware River located at the waterways experiment  station,  Vicksburg, Mississippi, were chosen as typical estuaries. The objectives of the tests were to determine dispersion rates of the brine waste, to define the dynamic equilibrium distribution of the waste after a period time, and in case of the Delaware River model, to determine the effects of freshwater inflow on dispersion rates and equilibrium values. Results indicate: (A) in estuaries such as San Diego Bay, with low tidal current velocities and very little freshwater flow into the system, dispersion and flushing rates will be extremely slow, and the time to reach dynamic equilibrium will be comparatively long; (B) in large shallow estuaries such as Galveston Bay extreme care should be used in selection of an outfall site, since flow conditions in the immediate vicinity of the diffuser are highly significant in overall dispersion rates and thus tend to trap the effluent; and (C) in estuaries similar to the Delaware River, which has appreciable freshwater discharge and tidal currents, sufficient mixing of the effluent will probably occur.


Author:
Watson, B M ; Hornburg, C D ; Collins, R

Title:
Blending and post-treatment protocols for SDWA compliance-Hollywood (FL) water plant

Publication:
Desalination vol. 102, no. 1 pp. 1-10; Proceedings of the 1994 biennial conference and exposition.  Membrane and desalting technologies


Title:
A Methodology for Measuring Ion Balance Toxicity in Membrane Concentrates

Abstract:
Disposal of membrane concentrate is one of the major operating concerns in consideration of membrane technology for water treatment. When compatible receiving waters are available in proximity to a proposed membrane facility, surface discharge of membrane concentrate is generally the most cost effective means of disposal. In the case of potable water treatment applications, membrane concentrates generally contain only the constituents present in naturally occurring waters in the area. As such, there are usually relatively few, if any, constituents that would be incompatible with discharge to surrounding surface waters. However, membrane concentrates often fail toxicity tests under standard bioassay protocols, and thus surface discharge permitting can be problematic. The toxicity observed in standard bioassay tests can be caused by differences in ratios of ions in membrane concentrate from the ratios in natural waters. For most ions there are upper and lower limits of concentrations that are tolerable to test organisms as well as interrelationships with ions, all of which are extremely difficult to determine on a concentrate specific basis. However, a methodology that employs a group of toxicity tests and ion manipulations can determine whether, and to what degree, ion balance factors contribute to observed toxicity in membrane concentrates. This paper provides a methodology for toxicity test manipulations that can identify the occurrence of ion balance toxicity. Further, the results of the testing regime can indicate whether ion balance results in all toxicity observed or is only partially responsible for observed toxicity. The methodology includes various forms of specific ion addition to test the effects of concentrate ionic composition on toxicity tests results. Included are techniques for addition of specific ions to make the concentrate match ionic ratios of natural waters, as well as creation of “mock” concentration solutions to provide independent verification of ion toxicity effects.


Title:
A Methodology for Calculating Actual Dilution of a Membrane Concentrate Discharge to Tidal Receiving Waters

Publication:
1999 Membrane Technology Conference. Long Beach, CA. Denver, CO: AWWA

Abstract:
In June 1996, Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) Permit No. FL0042358 and Administrative Order No. AO-005-SE were issued for the Town of Jupiter Reverse Osmosis facility concentrate discharge. The new permit and accompanying AO were issued to allow an increase of the concentrate discharge flow from two to four million gallons per day. Part of the requirements of the permit and AO were that a Dilution Study within the C- 18 Canal be conducted to define mixing zone limits for Fluoride and Combined Radium 226 and 228 in the four million gallon per day (MGD) concentrate discharge. Waters within the C- 18 canal, where the Jupiter Reverse Osmosis (JRO) concentrate currently discharges, are designated as Class II waters (Chapter 62-301, F.A.C.) and are thus subject to Class II Water Quality Criteria. The State water quality standards require that even during “worst case” conditions the discharge cannot result in exceeding water quality criteria outside an identified mixing zone around the discharge location. The principle of a mixing zone is to provide sufficient dilution in a defined area such that beyond the mixing zone limits, all water quality criteria are met. The 48-hour dye release dilution study provided site specific data on the dilution capacity of the C-18 canal receiving waters. This data along with measured concentrations of Fluoride and Combined Radium 226 and 228 in the discharge (as well as background) was used to project concentrations of these constituents in the receiving waters under worst case conditions of discharge (4 MGD) and available dilution. The results of this analysis indicated mixing zone lengths varied for each parameter tested. The information developed in the dilution study, specifically the dilution factors and rates of dilution outside the sampling stations, can be applied throughout the receiving waters. It can be, and in fact has been used to evaluate the mixing zone needs for other parameters that occur in the discharge. Additionally, the dilution factors and rates can be used to evaluate the effects of operational changes (i.e. recovery rate, discharge flow, etc.) as well as potential additional discharge locations.


Title:
Ionic Imbalance Toxicity in a Reverse Osmosis Concentrate

Abstract:
Surface discharge is often the most cost effective option for disposal of membrane concentrates. Permitting of discharges to surface waters through State and Federal regulatory programs requires, among other things, testing and analysis of toxicity in the discharge. The objective of this paper is to describe a confounding factor (ionic imbalance) in toxicity testing (bioassays) which was discovered in a reverse osmosis concentrate in Jupiter, Florida. The paper also discusses techniques used to alleviate the ionic imbalance so that the concentrate could be tested for ‘classic’ toxicants. Bioassay testing of RO concentrate conducted with the invertebrate Mysidopsis bahia (possum shrimp) showed consistent mortality during 96 hour tests. Extensive chemical analysis ruled out most typical ‘toxicants” in the concentrate. Analysis of ionic composition of the concentrate indicated that the major ions present were in proportions which were different from those of natural sea water. Literature review and communications with individuals in the field indicated that certain major ions must be in proportional ranges for the survival of Mysids. Through application of these principles and experimentation with addition of specific ions, the toxicity which had occurred as a result of ionic imbalance was eliminated.


Title:
A Comparison of the Laboratory Analysis and Receiving Water Effects of a Reverse Osmosis Concentrate Discharge

Abstract:
The Town of Jupiter, Florida has been discharging up to two million gallons per day (MGD) of reverse osmosis concentrate to the C-18 Canal for more than six years. During 1996, the existing reverse osmosis plant was expanded from six MGD to 12 MGD resulting in concentrate flows up to four MGD. Throughout the period of the concentrate discharge, extensive analysis of the chemical and biological characteristics of the concentrate have been conducted. The chemical analyses have covered the ionic constituents of the concentrate, as well as numerous scans for organic components, nutrients, and priority pollutants. The biological analyses of the concentrate have been limited to laboratory bioassay testing for acute and chronic toxicity. The receiving water (C-18 Canal) has also been tested extensively in an attempt to monitor potential effects of the discharge. Chemical analyses of in-situ surface water samples have covered the various inorganic and organic constituents that were of concern regarding receiving water effects. Also, extensive biological testing of the receiving waters, including benthic macroinvertebrates, algae populations, and acute toxicity has been conducted. This paper summarizes the wealth of data collected for this discharge over the last seven years. It provides a comparison of how laboratory results often do not provide solid predictive information on receiving water effects. This is especially true in the case of biological testing results of membrane concentrates. The unique chemical characteristics of membrane concentrates are also discussed in the context of their fate in receiving waters.


Author:
Whiting, D., Wolfe, S., Duranceau, S., Heyl, M., Bolin, L., Brooks, J., Drew, R., Fitzpatrick, T., Mandrup-Poulsen, J., Weinberg, E., Dye, C., and Mount, D.

Abstract:
The Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) and a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) comprised of state and federal biologists, and water treatment facility consultants and personnel, initiated a study to examine the toxicity of concentrate (“reject water”) from water treatment facilities wIthin the State of Florida, USA, which use membrane technology. Several of the drinking water facilities had failed 96-hour acute toxicity tests conducted with salt water test species which they were required to conduct by NPDES (National Pollution Discharge Elimination System) permits. The personnel from some of these facilities believed that the toxicity associated with the concentrates was not due to unknown toxicants, but due to the imbalance of the “major” seawater ions as compared to standard seawater (mer de normal). For the purpose of this study, “major” seawater ions are those present in standard seawater in concentrations greater than one percent, plus bromide and carbonate, which were necessary for test organism survival and pH control. The concentrates contained seawater ions, sometimes in high concentrations, but the absolute concentrations and relative proportions of these ions were different from that of standard seawater. To test if the major seawater ions were responsible for the observed toxicity, a suite of tests was designed which could discriminate between toxicity caused by major-seawater-ion toxicity, toxicity from constituents of the sample other than major seawater ions, and a combination of the two. No attempts were made to identify the toxicants beyond this level. Concentrate samples collected from six different membrane technology water treatment facilities from the State of Florida, during 1994-95, were examined in order to evaluate the test protocols. Selection of these facilities was based on the characteristics of the source water, concentrate, and geographic location. An attempt was made to maximize the diversity among the facilities included in the study. The seawater ions manipulated in these tests and their proportions in standard seawater are: sodium (30.7 %), chloride (55.1 %), sulfate (7.7 %), magnesium (3,6 %), calcium (1.2 %) and potassium (1.2 %), bromide (0.2%) and carbonate (0.4%).


Author:
Wolfe, S., Whiting, D., Duranceau, S., Heyl, M., Bolin, L., Brooks, J., Drew, R., Fitzpatrick, T., Mandrup-Poulsen, J., Weinberg, E., and Dye, C.

Title:
A Test Protocol for Membrane Concentrate Toxicity Resulting from an Imbalance of Seawater Ions

Abstract:
Discharges from water treatment facilities in Florida that use membrane technology are subject to NPDES permitting requirements~ which typically include an evaluation of aquatic toxicity using the standard 96-hr acute toxicity test protocol [1]. The concentrate (“reject water”) from these facilities often contains seawater ions in high concentrations, but the absolute concentration and relative proportions of these ions are frequently different from seawater composition. After failing the standard acute toxicity tests, several of the facilities using membrane technology notified the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) that an imbalance of major seawater ions was the suspected cause of the test failures, rather than the presence of unidentified toxic compounds that are toxic at low concentrations. As result, EDEP—, with guidance from a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC)—, developed a suite of toxicity tests designed to discriminate between toxicity caused by major seawater ions, toxicity from other sources, and toxicity from a combination of the two. The protocols were evaluated during 1994-95 using seventeen concentrate samples collected from six Florida water plants that use membrane technology for treatment.


Title:
Environmental impact report for City of Santa Barbara's and Ionics, Incorporated's temporary emergency desalination project


Title:
Treating the nanofiltration concentrate of a tertiary effluent from a municipal  wastewater treatment plant by ozonation and aerobic biotreatment

Publication:
China Environmental Science vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 353-355


Title:
Proposed Marin Desalination  Plant - siting criteria, evaluation and results.

Abstract:
A feasibility study was carried out to determine siting, process, off-site facilities and costs of a 5-10 mgd desalination seawater facility to serve Marin County in San Francisco Bay, CA. This generic approach can apply to any facility. Factors considered were raw water sources, constructability, service area, proximity, land availability, land use compatibility, existing intake/outfall, access to power, and environmental compatibility. The San Quentin Pipeyard site was chosen, and alternatives are the San Quentin Ridge and Point San Pedro sites.


Author:
Zarbock, H., J. Schulten, E. Long, and D. MacDonald

Title:
Sediment contamination in Tampa Bay - sources, risks and management.  Treat, S.F. (editor)


Title:
Model studies of outfall systems for desalination plants (Part III - Numerical simulation and design considerations)

Abstract:
Although at coastal locations, the saline dense effluent from a desalting plant is potentially harmful to the marine organisms, the environmental effects can be minimized or eliminated if the effluent is properly mixed with and diluted by the receiving water. Conceptual designs of outfall systems were previously developed on the basis of laboratory tests and are presented in 0SW R&D Progress Report No. 550. Experimental verification of the conceptual ·designs by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers was published as Parts I and II of this report (R&D Nos. 714 and 736). The data obtained in the flume study were used to calibrate several existing models for the jet regime. The model chosen gives a reasonable simulation of the geometry of the jet axis and the dilution at the peak of the jet, but was found to oversimulate the lateral spreading factor. Application of equations to the design of diffusers is presented. Numerical simulation of the dispersion of a dense effluent discharge into a homogeneous stream is included.


Title:
Disposal of the effluents from desalination plants : the effects of copper content, heat and salinity.    (For the Office of Saline Water.)

Publication:
Research and development progress report no. 437 .  Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1969.  xi, 192 p. : ill. ; 26 cm.


