# Paste Errors

Field3:
Evaluation of the Port Hueneme Demonstration Plant: An Analysis of 1 MGD Reverse Osmosis, Nanofiltration and Electrodialysis Reversal Plants Run under Essentially Identical Conditions. Desalination and Water Purification Research and Development Program Report No. 65.

Field4:
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161, (703) 605-6000

Field5:
The Port Hueneme Demonstration Plant was established to supply neighboring communities with increased quantities of high quality water and to provide a comparison of three membrane desalting processes. Comparison of these processes is the subject of this paper. The processes used were reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, and electrodialysis reversal. Data on plant operation were supplied to Reclamation by the Port Hueneme Water Authority. For the purpose of this analysis, records that were much more detailed than usual were kept on equipment performance, chemical consumption and labor. The evaluation period used ran from March 1999 on February 2000. Calculated water treatment costs are expressed as 1999 dollar per thousand U.S. gallons. For this period nanofiltration was shown to be less costly than reverse osmosis and both were lower in cost than electrodialysis reversal. Overall each process each process worked well, once the startup problems were resolved. This demonstration clearly shows that a low-TDS brackish water can be desalted for an all-inclusive cost under $0.90 per thousand gallons.


# tblSTJOHN

Title:
Implementation of Technology Assessment Investment Techniques on Water Desalination

Abstract:
The aim of this paper is to introduce the philosophy and mechanisms of technology assessment as a potential tools to contribute to the development of planning and decision making about technology and infrastructure of water resources. This paper is abstracted from my M.Phil study that included a review and critique of planning in public utilities, particularly as it effects water supply system, and a review of the technology of water supply, in region of the world where water is scarce. This is followed by a practical demonstration of the implementation of techniques for technology assessment focusing on a replacement model involving life cycle costing (LCC). Finally the M.Phil study had suggested recommendation for the implementation of technology assessment in Kuwait. Cost reduction in water resources planning is possible in any type of water production plant from relative reductions in personnel and other overhead costs. Increased costs also might be incurred due to water transportation and the type and size of the production plants. Once the water needs of an area are established, the problem of meeting those needs becomes the trade-off issues and balancing the various factors to arrive at the most economic, technological, social and other arrangements. Other factors affecting the selection of an appropriate water supply system are overall cost and efficiency of the system overtime, relative costs of supplying, storing, distributing the produced water and the cost of disposing and treating the used water. This paper is presenting the replacement model analysis in calculating the economic type and total cost in terms of net present value (NPV) implementing a LCC techniques modified from the replacement model of Cranfield Institute of Technology, Centre for Transport Studies adapted from Susamms, 1983. Several scenarios are to be presented to demonstrate the implementation of the replacement model on two water production technologies; reverse osmosis (RO) and multi stage flash (MSF) aiming to demonstrate how the use of replacement analysis can contribute to the relevant decision issues in water resources planning in regard of future technological and economical changes.


Author:
Al-Sofi, M., Hassan, A., Hamad, O>, Mustafa, G., Dalvi, A., Kither, M.

Title:
Means and Merits of Higher Temperature Operation in Dual Purpose Plants

Abstract:
For the last 3 years, the SWCC-RDC conducted extensive R&D work on nanofiltration (NF) pretreatment of feed to SWRO and make-up to MSF pilot plants in dihybrid arrangement of NF-SWRO or NF=MSF, also in trihybrid of NF-SWROreject - MSF, where the SWRO reject from the dihybrid NF-SWRO is used as make-up to the MSF unit.  In both di/trihybrid the MSF unit was operated successfully at 120oC without further acidification, antiscalant or antifoam.  The paper summarizes the MSF performance, which was established at operating Top Brine Temperature (TBT) of 120oC, in the dihybrid NF-MSF and trihybrid NF-SWROreject-MSF systems.


Author:
Ammerlaan, A., Franklin, J. and Moody, C.

Abstract:
Membrane degradation during test operations.


Title:
Regional Report on Desalination:  Latin America and the Caribbean

Abstract:
This paper presents a general discussion of the following for the Latin American and Caribbean Region: 1)description of the region, 2) the historical trends, 3) the current activities and 4) the predictions for the future.  The prediction of the paper is that there will be a continuing increase in desalination activity in the region, especially if membrane desalination systems can be utilized to treat contaminated waters, in place of traditional coagulation-filtration systems, especially in coastal areas with seawater intrusion.


Title:
Design Study of a 20,000 cu-m/day Seawater Reverse Osmosis Work Exchanger Energy Recovery System

Abstract:
Work exchangers are the most efficient energy recovery devices currently in use on seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plants.  However, to-date work exchangers applications have been limited…


Author:
Andrews, W., Crowley, K., McTaggart, R., Shumway, S., and Wolley, D.

Title:
Installation of a New Seawater Desalination Plant at Lower Valley Grand Cayman

Publication:
Proceedings, The Next Breakthrough in Seawater Desalination Conference, Curacao, N.A.

Abstract:
A 1500 cu-m/day (Nominal 400,000 US gall/day) seawater reverse osmosis plant has been constructed to provide desalinated water to the Water Authority - Cayman on Grand Cayman Island, Cayman Islands.  The Plant was commissioned in March, 1998.  The plant is designed to provide an average of 1,350 cu-m per day of potable water to the Authority for a period of 7 years under a Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT) agreement.  This new supply of water will supplement the existing 5,000 cu-m/d desalination plant, which was installed in 1991.


Title:
Design of a 10,000 cu-m/d Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant on New Providence Island, The Bahamas

Abstract:
A 10,000 cu-m/day (2,640,000 US gallon/day) seawater reverse osmosis plant is being constructed to provide desalinated water to the Water and Sewerage Corporation (W&SC) on New Providence Island, The Bahamas.  The Plant will provide 64,000 cu-m of potable water per week to the W&SC for a period of 15 years under a Build, Own, and Operate (BOO) agreement.  Blending of the water from the Plant with groundwater sources will result in a significant improvement in the quality of water distributed on New Providence.  The Plant incorporated many interesting design features, including: a work exchanger energy recovery system, diesel-driven high-pressure positive-displacement pumps, and 100% 2nd-pass RO system to produce a product TDS of less than 50 mg/L.


Author:
Atwater, R., Palquist, L., and Onkka, J.

Title:
The West Basin Desalter Project:  A Viable Alternative

Abstract:
The Southern California area has historically experienced severe water shortages and it is expected to become worse in the future. Effects of the six-year drought, ending in 1992, coupled with the reduction in reliable imported supplies has forced water agencies to explore and develop new local water sources. One source that will be used to meet existing and future needs is brackish groundwater. Historic overdraft of the West Coast Basin has resulted in seawater intrusions in the coastal aquifers since the 1920s. While seawater barriers have successfully halted the intrusion, they have unfortunately trapped brackish waters inland, which has degraded large quantities of groundwater. The inland movement of this trapped portion of seawater has caused the water produced by many wells to become too saline for potable use. Extraction and treatment of this brackish groundwater represents a tremendous water source for the area. In 1991, West Basin Municipal Water District (WBMWD) initiated development of the West Basin Desalter Project (WBDP). The WBDP is the first attempt to mitigate the brackish groundwater problem in the West Coast Basin. The WBDP, completed in 1993, is a 1.5 mgd reverse osmosis (RO) groundwater desalter. Once the brackish groundwater is extracted and treated to potable levels, it is distributed to the City of Torrance for domestic use. The objectives of implementing the West Basin Desalter Project include: Improving local water resources, reducing dependence on imported water, remediating and utilizing the trapped saline water plume, encouraging utilization of groundwater rights, and encouraging interagency cooperation. The WBDP is a vital new source of potable water which highlights the ability to utilize existing resources and, through cooperation and team work, serves as a model for the continued improvement of local water resources.


Title:
Perspective and Challenges for Desalination


Title:
Disposal of Concentrates from Brackish Water Desalting Plants by Means of Evaporation Technology


Title:
The Interagency Consortium for Desalination and Membrane Separation Research

Abstract:
The Interagency Consortium has made significant progress since the concept was first envisioned. It has provided a forum for government agencies to meet and share information on technical programs and research needs. It has also increased the transfer of information and data between agencies. The Consortium has proven to be a worthwhile venture to establish joint programs and cooperative efforts. As the group continues to meet and formulate its strategy for the future, significant opportunities exist to build upon the foundation that has been laid.


Author:
Bechtel Group, Inc. for the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

Title:
Desalination Technology:  Report on the State of the Art


Publication:
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Bureau of Reclamation

Abstract:
A relatively new non-traditional and innovative heat efficient tower process, referred to as Dewvaporation, has been investigated and is now operational at Arizona State University.  Dewvaporation technique is a specific process of humidification-dehumidification desalination, which uses air as a carrier-gas to evaporate water from saline feeds and dew form pure condensate at constant atmospheric pressure.  The heat needed for evaporation is supplied by the heat released by dew fall condensation on opposite sides of a heat transfer wall.  Since only a small amount of external heat is needed to establish temperature differences across the wall and since the temperature of the external heat is versatile, the external heat source can be from waste heat, from solar collectors or from fuel combustion.  The unit is constructed out of thin water wettable plastics and operated at pressure drops of less than 0.1 inches of water.


Title:
Reactivating after 11 years a 3 MGD Seawater RO Plant in Florida

Abstract:
On January 22, 1981 the Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority commissioned a 3 mgd seawater reverse osmosis plant on the island of Key West, Florida. At the time, this plant was an interim solution to a critical water need for the lower Florida Keys. The plant was to be used until a new pipeline from the mainland Florida peninsula could be completed. The plant continuously produced potable water from seawells for 18 months and then for the next 5 years was placed in standby with each bank (total of 6) being operated two hours per day every 2 weeks. For the last 6 years, the facility has been mothballed. It became evident last year, as a result of Hurricane Andrew, that the Florida Keys needed to have available emergency potable water should a disaster strike this area. Several options were examined; the least costly appeared to be the activation of the Key West RO plant, provided the facility could be refurbished at reasonable cost. This paper discusses the very positive results obtained when this plant was brought back on-line and quality water was produced. Also included is how the facility is now being upgraded to provide a satisfactory potable water supply in case an emergency strikes the locality.


Title:
National Desalting and Water Treatment Needs Survey

Abstract:
This report presents the findings of a survey conducted under the Desalting Technology Program, Bureau of Reclamation, to determine the needs for desalting and water treatment from a national perspective. This survey examines available water quality and information for both raw water and treated water supply. A broad overview is also provided of current and proposed water treatment activity in the following major areas of application: industrial and municipal supply, wastewater reuse, ground-water recharge, irrigation drainage, dual-purpose plants, hazardous waste control, and point-of-use treatment. In addition, the technical, economic, financial, environmental, and regulatory concerns about desalting/water treatment technology are briefly summarized.


Title:
Choose Among Membranes for RO Desalination - Varied Construction Options Available

Abstract:
A wide variety of membrane types, sizes, construction options and techniques are available for removing salt from water.There are basically two types of commercial membranes used in RO applications today: cellulose acetate (CA) and thin film (TF). The former is considered an integral membrane, the latter a composite membrane


Abstract:
The City has relied upon a raw water supply drawn from the Floridan Aquifer inland from its service area because caostal groundwaters in Brevard County are brackish and costly to treat. However, the delays the City has experienced in implementing its water supply development plan could have significant impacts, and improvements in desalination technology have made it more technically and economically feasible to treat brackish water. Therefore, the City initiated an investigation to assess the potential for developing a brackish water well field in Brevard County as a supplemental source of water supply to help meet increasing demands. The results of this investigation are described in this report.


Title:
Water Resource and Water Supply Development: Seawater Desalination

Abstract:
Identification and evaluation of seawater desalination options, including data collection, environmental considerations, permitting, and public opinion. Includes an assessment of potential users, and potential plant location analysis.


Title:
Seawater Desalination: An investigation of Concentrate Disposal

Abstract:
Alternative sources of water such as seawater desalination are currently under investigation in areas such as peninsular Florida that are experiencing potabel water supply problems related to the overdraft of ground water and the undependable nature of surface water resources. Although the desalination technology is well established, questions remain concerning the proper discharge of the concentrated salt solution, which is a by-product of the desalination process.


Title:
A Methodology for Comparing Water Desalination to Competitive Fresh Water Transportation and Treatment

Abstract:
The comparison between desalination and other water supply methods is usually based on a conventional economic evaluation which typically takes into account the direct capital and operating costs and utilizes techniques and criteria which differ from designer to employer. While this method is usually adequate when one of the alternative water supply methods is clearly superior, the comparison must be much more systematic and comprehensive where the alternatives are competitive. This paper presents a methodology for such a comprehensive evaluation, addressing the complete water supply-disposal chain and taking into consideration technical, environmental, economic, and political aspects of the problem.


Title:
RO Energy Consumption Under Variable Parameters of Operation

Publication:
AMTA 2002 Biennial  Conference and Exposition "Water Quality Enhancement Through Membrane Technology"

Abstract:
Specific energy consumption (SEC) of Reverse Osmosis (RO) desalination systems, defined
as the energy consumed per unit volume of permeate, has usually been estimated using simplistic
analyses that consider an average duty point of operation for a certain plant. A more sophisticated
and comprehensive approach that accounts for the effects of variable parameters of operation on SEC
was recently described, introducing the concept of the ihhydraulic envelopeli. Variable parameters
include flow rates at variable recoveries, feed temperature and salinity with their resulting pressure
requirements, pressure losses caused by membrane fouling, and pressure losses caused by system
controls such as feed throttle valves.
This paper will explore in greater detail the concept of the hydraulic envelope and variable
parameters of operation for a specific exemplary case study plant, investigating various energy
recovery strategies with particular attention to realistic performance curves of the respective
equipment. Meaningful insight into the parameters that determine SEC can only be gained by fully
defining the hydraulic characteristics of each major device in the RO system that is involved in
energy transfer which includes pumps, energy recovery devices (ERDs), variable speed pump drives,
motors, and pressure control apparatus (throttle valves, bypass valves, etc.). Membrane performance
characteristics and the desired permeate output impose operating requirements on the hydraulic
components. The response of those hydraulic components to the imposed operating conditions
determine SEC.
Results of the analysis suggest that hydraulic component interaction with the membrane is
critical in determining the optimal equipment configuration for a minimized SEC. Seemingly
paradoxically, the optimal SEC configuration is often achieved with components that have lower
peak efficiency, but a broader operating range.


Title:
KAJUR - Case Study of SWRO Utilizing Work Exchanger Energy Recovery on a
Remote Atoll

Abstract:
Seawater desalination, from any perspective, is an expensive proposition. With numerous
advancements in membrane technology, pump and motor efficiencies, and energy recovery devices, the
operating expenses of Seawater Reverse Osmosis systems can be dramatically reduced. Although the
capital cost of a state-of-the-art system may be higher, the price difference of a well-designed RO
system will quickly pay for itself in energy savings.
On a remote island in the Pacific, with high salinity and expensive electricity, maximizing
efficiency for the new Reverse Osmosis Desalination System was key. When Kwajalein Atoll Joint
Utilities Resources (KAJUR) solicited bids for twin 75,000 gpd SWRO systems expandable to 100,000
gpd, Hydropro, Inc. presented two proposals. One was for a conventional SWRO systems and the other
proposal was based on obtaining the highest level of efficiency. With lessons learned from experiences
with their existing system, and a central concern for a reduction of operating cost and reliability, KAJUR
selected the innovative Hydropro design.
The standard-technology Hydropro design for this type of system, incorporating centrifugal
pumps and conventional energy recovery, produces product water at an approximate power consumption
rate of 4.8 kWh/m 3 . The state-of-the-art system Hydropro designed and built for KAJUR, employing
high efficiency pumps and pressure exchangers, produces product water at a power consumption rate of
approximately 2.5 kWh/m 3 . In comparison, a system with a positive displacement pump and no energy
recovery will consume approximately 6.9 kWh/m 3 .
The new SWRO plant has been providing potable water for the 10,000 residents of Ebeye,
Marshal Islands for nearly one year now. However, startup and operation were not completely
straightforward. There were some issues with the feed water, and the initial performance of the installed
system was less than what was projected.
This paper will discuss energy consumption and conservation for seawater Reverse Osmosis
systems in general, and the prudence of using new technologies that allow for a more efficient system
design. The project approach, system design, and major component selection will be discussed, as well
as projected performance with respect to power consumption and feed and product water quality. Issues
with system startup, testing, optimization, and reliability will be explored, as well as the actual system
performance and the factors affecting it. Finally, this paper will conclude with an assessment of the
successfulness of the project, and make recommendations for energy efficient designs and future work.


Title:
Utilization of Membrane Technology for Water Conservation Through Concentrate
Recycling for Residential Irrigation

Abstract:
The City of Dunedin, located on west central Florida, operates a 20 well intra-City
wellfield, utilizes membrane technology to provide 40,000 residents high quality
potable water, and recycles Reverse Osmosis (RO) concentrate through the City™s
Advanced Wastewater Treatment Facility to provide reclaimed water reuse for
residential and recreational turf irrigation.
Due to the City™s geographic location, there is a potential for salt-water intrusion
primarily through upconing movement of the salt-water interface at the well head.
Historically, many of the City™s wells experienced increases in chloride
concentrations. Increased chloride concentrations in raw water can lead to higher
RO water treatment costs and elimination of wastewater as a reuse irrigation
resource. The City™s ability to recycle 100 % of the RO Water Treatment Facility™s
concentrate and filter backwash water through a reclaimed water program has
allowed the full utilization of the raw water from the aquifer and provided up to 1
million gallons of additional irrigation water. This irrigation supply offset pumpage
of groundwater in competition with municipal water wells.
In 1992, the City initiated an upgrade to the water treatment system to address the
issues of increasing chloride concentrations, aggressive iron laden groundwater, and
stricter potable water quality standards imposed by regulatory agencies. The City
responded to these water quality concerns by construction of a RO Membrane
Water Treatment Facility. Groundwater from a dispersed wellfield is pumped to
this Facility through a raw water main network. Raw water is pretreated in green
sand filters to remove iron and hydrogen sulfide, treated to lower pH and
antiscaling control, passed through cartridge filters, and then pumped through the
RO membrane skid system. The permeate water is blended for water stabilization,
disinfected with chlorine, fluoridated, and pH adjusted. The water is provided to
the community through a system of ground storage tanks and high service pumps.


Title:
Permitting the Largest Indirect Potable Wastewater Reclamation Plant in the World


Title:
Design and Operation of a Microfiltration and Reverse Osmosis System Treating
Secondary Effluent and Providing High Quality Reclaimed Water

Abstract:
The use of membrane treatment plants has increased in recent years fueled by water shortages,
new stringent water quality criteria, and industrial needs. This paper demonstrates how
membrane technology is helping relieve water shortage in Southern California, by producing
high quality water from wastewater effluent to meet stringent water quality, industrial, and
municipal needs.
Southern California relies heavily on imported water from Northern California, The Colorado
River, and Owens Valley. While these water sources are limited, Southern California continues
to grow. Its demand for water continues to increase. Many of the water districts in Southern
California have embarked on programs to conserve water, desalinate ocean water, and reclaim
brackish and treated wastewater sources. The West Basin Municipal Water District™s is a leader
in water recycling. Its recycling plant in El Segundo, California treats secondary effluent
received from the City of Los Angeles™ Hyperion Treatment Plant to provide high quality water
to satisfy irrigation demands, industrial demands and for use as seawater intrusion barrier. All of
these demands would have required imported water if recycled water was not available.
The West Basin Water Recycling Plant (WBWRP) provides various levels of treatment. Part of
its flow receives conventional direct filtration. The balance receives membrane treatment.
Currently, the plant uses three different trains of membrane treatment. One train uses lime
clarification and reverse osmosis (RO). A second train uses microfiltration and RO, while the
third train uses microfiltration and a two pass RO system.
This paper provides an overview of the membrane treatment processes at the WBWRP, the
treatment goals and the equipment necessary to achieve the goals. It also provides actual
operating data and conditions, and compares them to the design goals.


Title:
What a Difference New Technology Makes - West Basin Municipal Water District™s
Experience with Operating Two Types of RO Membranes Treatment Processes in Water
Recycling Operations

Abstract:
West Basin Municipal Water District was formed in 1947 under the California Municipal Water
District Act. West Basin Municipal Water District is a public agency which provides wholesale potable
water and recycled water to 17 South Bay cities and several unincorporated Los Angeles County areas.
There are approximately 831,000 residents living with West Basin's 185 square-mile service area. West
Basin is governed by a five member publicly-elected Board of Directors, with each director serving a
four-year term of office. West Basin's headquarters is in Carson, California.
The West Basin Water Recycling Plant (WBWRP) began producing recycled water in mid-1995
and has the capacity to deliver 43 million gallons per day (mgd) of recycled water. The secondary-
treated wastewater coming into WBWRP is split into three treatment processes that produce six different
qualities of recycled water:
−Tertiary (irrigation)
−Nitrified Tertiary (cooling tower)
−Lime Clarification/Reverse Osmosis (groundwater injection)
−Microfiltration/Reverse Osmosis/chlorine disinfection (groundwater injection)
−Microfiltration/Reverse Osmosis (boilerfeed Œ low pressure)
−Microfiltration/Reverse Osmosis/Reverse Osmosis (boilerfeed Œ high pressure)
The high purity recycled water produced by the one of the treatment processes, is known as the
Barrier, is injected into the West Coast Basin Barrier Project (WCBBP) to protect coastal groundwater
against saltwater intrusion. The high purity recycled water is blended with potable water prior to
injection in the WCBBP. The Barrier treatment process consists of two processes: 1) lime
clarification/tri-media filtration and reverse osmosis (RO) using cellulose acetate membranes (5 mgd
capacity) has been operating since July, 1995 and 2) microfiltration, RO using polyamide membranes,
and chlorine disinfection (2.5 mgd capacity) which has been operating since July, 1997.
Since 1997 WBWRP operational staff have gathered various types of information related to the
two RO membranes operated. The information gathered relate to: operation, water quality, maintenance, and costs. When comparing the RO membranes operations (conventional vs. MF/RO) the
biggest difference is pretreatment scheme needed by RO. The operational comparison period begins in
July, 1997 when the full scale MF/RO process was installed at WBWRP. When comparing RO train
performance, the average feed pressure after cleaning is 359 psi for conventional and 180 psi for
MF/RO, which means less energy is used by the MF/RO. The water quality produced by the two
treatment processes is quite different and outlined in the next table.
Conventional MF/RO
Constituent Influent Effluent Influent Effluent
Silica (mg/L) 12.55 2.88 25.2 0.23
Sulfate (mg/L) 309 3.63 225 > 2
TOC (mg/L) --- 0.73 --- 0.19
TDS (mg/L) 835 57 741 14
Turbidity (NTU) 0.31 --- 0.05 ---
Operational costs for the two pretreatment schemes are also quite different. The costs taken into
account when making the comparisons are: capital, O&M, replacement, chemicals, sludge handling, and
power. The conventional pretreatment costs are estimated at $536/acre-ft. and microfiltration are at
$270/acre-ft. The main differences being chemical usage, sludge handling, and power.


Title:
Comparison of RO, NF and EDR After Three Years at the PHWA Brackish Water
Reclamation Demonstration Facility

Abstract:
In Port Hueneme, California, a state-of-the-art desalination facility uses three brackish water
desalination technologies: reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), and electrodialysis reversal (EDR),
operated side-by-side to produce up to 4 million gallons per day (MGD) of high quality drinking water.
The Brackish Water Reclamation Demonstration Facility (BWRDF) is the cornerstone of the Port
Hueneme Water Agency's (PHWA) Water Quality Improvement Program. In addition to providing
desalted water for local use, the BWRDF also serves as a full-scale research and demonstration facility.
It is usually a difficult task to compare the long-term performance and operating costs of different
technologies due to variables in source water quality, plant capacities, and labor, power and chemical
costs. Operating three full-scale desalination technologies in parallel at the same site and on the same
source water has made direct comparison possible. During the course of the plant's operation, the
PHWA staff collects data on operating costs and performance characteristics of the three membrane
systems. This provides a basis for the comparison of these three desalination technologies that can then
be used by water purveyors to determine which technology best suits their local conditions.
This paper provides an overview of the PHWA BWRDF, highlights some lessens learned after
three years of operation and presents a comparison of the three desalination technologies. In the first
year, the facility experience problems with biofouling in the RO and NF membranes and the EDR
system had the lowest O&M cost. In the second year operation changes were made to resolve the
biofouling and now the RO and NF system have the lowest O&M cost.


Title:
Cost Effective Program Implementation for Independence

Abstract:
The City of North Miami Beach (City) currently owns and operates the Norwood Oeffler Water
Treatment Plant (Norwood WTP). The Norwood WTP is capable of producing approximately 16
million gallons per day (MGD) of potable finished water with its current facilities. The City supplies
their residents, and residents of adjacent Dade County communities, with finished water from the
Norwood WTP and through interconnects with the Miami-Dade Water and Sewer Department
(MDWASD). The City currently purchases approximately 10 MGD from MDWASD to satisfy the
demand needs of their service area. The City™s Norwood WTP currently produces finished water that
meets or exceeds all current regulatory standards. However, the City desired to provide their customers
with a finished water of superior quality. The City had also prioritized becoming independent from the
MDWASD supply. Therefore, with these goals in mind, the City implemented a Water Improvement
Program that would expand and improve the City™s water system to provide almost complete
independence from MDWASD, and improve the quality of water that would be delivered to their
customers. An evaluation was performed to determine an economically favorable solution that would
meet the City™s water demand and water quality goals.
In order to address the feasibility of meeting the City™s water program goals, a thorough
evaluation was performed for historical and projected demand, approximate magnitude of water to be
purchased through interconnects equipped with pressure sustaining valves (PSVs) from MDWASD,
proposed improvements and associated capacities to be constructed as part of the initial phase of the
water program, backup and reliability provisions, and finally water quality impacts resulting from
various finished water blend scenarios, including the utilization of the PSVs on selected interconnects
with MDWASD. The recommended program provided to the City includes initial phase improvements
to provide a total production capacity of 30 MGD and utilization of MDWASD interconnects to supply
minimal water to meet emergency, redundancy, or unusually high peak demands. The first phase of the
improvement program will move the City closer to independence from MDWASD, and will utilize
membrane technology to treat Biscayne Aquifer and Floridan Aquifer source waters with nanofiltration
(NF) and low pressure reverse osmosis (LPRO), respectively.


Title:
Bench-Scale Membrane Testing on Ohio Waters


Title:
Partnership in Design/Build Success Story of 8-mgd Nanofiltration Treatment Facility for
Deep Aquifer Treatment System (DATS)

Abstract:
The Irvine Ranch Water District (IRWD) obtains potable water from the local groundwater basin's main aquifer and imports water from the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California. Imported water is expensive and becoming less reliable than local groundwater. With limitations on pumping the main aquifer, IRWD looked to the deeper, colored water aquifer Natural organic matter (NOM) causes the color. The Deep Aquifer Treatment System (DATS) is designed to remove this color providing IRWD with a low cost water supply source. IRWD staff was given the goal of bringing DATS on-line within two years. The project is schedule driven, IRWD has a prescriptive design approach, and the design does not offer significant operating cost savings opportunities. Therefore, IRWD selected design-build (DB) to expedite DATS delivery. The DATS preliminary design and DB contractor procurement tasks started in January 2000.  Source water comes from two new DATS wells about 2000' deep. Per agreement, IRWD is allowed to withdraw 8,000 acre-feet per year of water from the deep aquifer. Each well produces about 2800 gpm of raw water. The blended water has color up to 300 color units.    IRWD prepared 25% design documents covering wellhead pumping, piping and site work, treatment process, building aesthetics, electrical, instrumentation, and concentrate disposal with drawings and technical memoranda. The heart of DATS is an 8 MGD nanofiltration membrane treatment plant housed in a 7,500 square-foot building. The low-pressure membranes will operate at 92% recovery. There are three parallel trains each containing three stages arrayed with 36-18- 8 pressure vessels. The treatment train consists of cartridge filters, anti-scalant addition, NF feed pumps, membrane filtration, methane degassifiers, product water pumping, and concentrate disposal. Constructed with full instrumentation, DATS will be an unstaffed facility. The product water is chloraminated at an existing downstream disinfection facility.  The DB contractor was selected using a two step process. First, a request for qualifications was distributed. Nine DB teams submitted statements of qualifications (SOQ). The SOQs were reviewed based upon a set of requirements, such as membrane treatment experience, DB experience, and financial capabilities. This review resulted in a list of three teams that were allowed to propose on the work. A Request for Proposals was issued containing the 25% design, a risk allocation matrix, a bid form, forms to suggest enhancements to their project teams, and a formula for calculating the life-cycle cost. DB teams provided construction bids, life-cycle cost information, as well as proposed project and team changes. IRWD™s selection of the DB team was to be based on an estimate of the life-cycle costs (90%) and qualifications (10%). As the life-cycle costs were within 2%, the successful DB team was selected based on a subjective analysis of their qualifications. The selected DB team was not the low bidder. IRWD awarded the contract to build the DATS project in January 2001 in the amount of $10.5 million.  IRWD hired a partnering consultant to help the DB team, IRWD, and permitting agencies create a project charter. These sessions set the tone for weekly meetings and change order negotiations, which went well. Some permits from regulatory agencies were relatively easy to obtain, possibly due to the groundwork set at the partnering sessions.  IRWD is self-performing construction management services using staff from a  variety of departments with limited assistance from the preliminary design engineer. Contract cost and schedule compliance are excellent to date. The change orders are under 1%, partially due to creative problem solving by the DB team and IRWD as well as use of project allowances. DATS is on schedule and is expected to be producing water in January/February 2002.  The overall budget for the project, including well drilling, preliminary design, DB team procurement, the DB contract, construction management, and permits is $16 million. The project provides IRWD with a source water cost savings of $9000 per day. Final water cost is $400 per acre-foot vs. imported water at $450 per acre-foot. The payback period for
the project is 7 years including the two years for project design and construction.


Title:
Case Study: Selecting Low Pressure NF Membranes for the Treatment of South Florida
(Biscayne Aquifer) Waters

Abstract:
The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (Metropolitan), in conjunction with Koch
Membrane Systems (KMS), evaluated three generations of a 16-in.-diameter by 60-in.-long reverse
osmosis (RO) element in parallel with a commercially available 8-in.-diameter element. Design
inefficiencies in the first-generation 16-in. element resulted in a 20 percent lower specific flux when
compared to an 8-in. element. After making improvements in element design, the overall specific flux
for the last-generation 16-in. element was shown to be comparable to that of the 8-in. element.
However, a slightly higher fouling rate was observed for the 16-in. element.
An economic evaluation comparing costs using both 16-in. and 8-in. diameter elements for a
185-million gallon per day (mgd) [700 million liters/day (ML/day)] RO plant showed that a design using
16-in. elements may save as much as 12.4 percent ($4.2 million per year) in combined capital and
operations and maintenance costs. The present value of capital-cost savings alone was estimated at
$44.3 millionŒa 27 percent reduction. The majority of these cost savings were attributed to reductions in
train piping, support frame, miscellaneous train equipment (i.e., instrumentation, cleaning skid, and
prefilters), and footprint.


Title:
Reducing Costs for Large-Scale Desalting Plants by Using Large-Diameter Reverse,
Osmosis Membranes


Title:
Brackish Groundwater Desalination Water Supply in the Southwest Florida Water
Management District (Draft only Œ final paper not submitted)


Title:
Groundwater Quality Enhanced Using Low Pressure RO System

Publication:
AMTA 2002 Biennial  Confrence and Exposition "Water Quality Enhancement Through Membrane Technology"


Title:
Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 1994-95. - Annual rept.

Publication:
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161, (703) 605-6000

Abstract:
This report contains articles on the use of chemical markers for determining the source and fate of contaminants and particles in the coastal ocean. These techniques were implemented in our analytical facility over the past several years and are now being used in the field to distinguish the inputs of materials generated by various human activities from the input of natural products. There are several articles that either describe new methods developed in our laboratory, or describe problems with existing methods and our recommendations for improvements. There are articles about the biology of benthic organisms that are used as indicator species in certain monitoring programs.


Title:
Effects of Disposal of Seawater Desalination on Discharge in Nearshore Benthic Communities


Title:
Desalination: It's Potential in Water Treatment

Abstract:
The comparison between desalination and other water supply methods is usually based on a conventional economic evaluation which typically takes into account the direct capital and operating costs and utilizes techniques and criteria which differ from designer to designer. While this method is usually adequate when one of the alternative water supply methods is clearly superior, the comparison must be much more systematic and comprehensive where the alternatives are competitive. This paper addresses the complete water supply-disposal chain and taking into consideration technical, environmental, economic, and political aspects of the problem. Actual examples are provided to illustrate the methodology.


Author:
Thomas Seacord, P.E., Bryant Bench, P.E.

Title:
Remediation of High Hardness Sulphate contaminated Groundwater Using High Recovery No acid RO Treatment


Title:
Reducing Acid Demand and Enhancing Membrane Treatment Operations by Optimizing Acid Feed Point Location

Abstract:
The Prineville Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Plant (ROWTP) is located in Port St. Lucie,
Florida. The current practice at the Prineville ROWTP includes a single sulfuric acid feed point
upstream of the cartridge filters and RO process that provides pH adjustment to the well-buffered
Floridan Aquifer water. The acid added at this location is adequate to provide a pH of 6.0 in the
combined stream of the blend and permeate waters. The resulting pH optimizes the hydrogen sulfide
stripping in the post-treatment degasifiers. The pH at which the raw water enters the membranes is
about half a pH unit less than what is required by the membrane manufacturers to prevent scaling.
Based on the current operations it was suggested by the City™s chief operator that we should investigate
the benefits of providing a second sulfuric acid feed point located on the permeate line. The RO pre-
treatment feed point would lower the pH to limit scaling of the membrane system, while the secondary
iepost-treatmentl丽 feed point would be responsible for reducing the permeate down to the necessary pH to
optimize degasification. By utilizing a two feed system, a significant cost savings can be realized based
on the poor buffering capacity of the permeate, and the resulting smaller quantities of acid that are
required to achieve a pH of 6.0 entering the degasifiers.
It was also realized that this process enhancement has secondary process benefits. At a higher
pH, the feed water contains more of the hydrogen sulfide in the bisulfide ion form. Bisulfide, just like
any other ion, can be almost entirely removed by the membranes. A higher removal of bisulfide will in
turn reduce the chlorine and caustic soda demand in the two stage wet scrubber, thus providing some
cost savings in the chemical use of chlorine and caustic soda.


Title:
Scale Inhibitor and Recovery Optimization for a Brachisk Water Supply

Abstract:
Pilot testing was conducted at a brackish water reverse osmosis water treatment plant to identify
operational constraints associated with effective scaling control. The test program involved testing select
inhibitors/dispersants, feed water pH, and operating recovery as part of a full-scale retrofit from a hollow
fiber to spiral-wound reverse osmosis membrane facility. The test results indicated the facility could be
operated at elevated recovery, but was sensitive to conditioning with sulfuric acid. Use of sulfuric acid
addition to control calcium carbonate scaling was determined to increase calcium sulfate scaling.
Membrane autopsy data confirmed calcium sulfate scaling onto the membrane surface with minimal
biological and organic content. It was determined that recovery could be increased from 65 to 75 percent
by discontinuing sulfuric acid addition and feeding only scale inhibitor. Scale inhibitors with dispersant
properties were recommended for full-scale implementation.


Title:
Problems in Stabilizing Permeate from Tampa Bay Water Desalination Plant


Title:
Development of a CD Rom Cost Program for Water treatment Projects

Abstract:
One of the major problems faced by engineers, managers and end users in initiating a
water purification project is to estimate the cost of the facility with a reasonable degree of
accuracy. Further, with so many treatment technologies available for selection, which
ones are the most economical for a specific installation site?
The US Bureau of Reclamation, with the assistance of I. Moch & Associates and Boulder
Research Enterprises, has developed a computer program, WTCost©, which evaluates the
capital and operation and maintenance costs for a plant that could use any one of various
separation technologies. This model contains cost algorithms for reverse
osmosis/nanofiltration, ultrafiltration/microfiltration, electrodialysis and ion exchange.
Intake and outfall infrastructures, pretreatment and posttreatment unit operations, pumps,
tanks and control instrumentation are also included so that plant costs can be fully
estimated. All inputs needed for the calculations, such as water analyses, energy and
chemical usages and prices, labor staffing and rates, construction indices, amortization
have default values for users who are not conversant with the separation techniques
presented. These defaults values can be over-ridden when more complete information is
available. The program includes an editable membrane database, but is supplier neutral.
This paper presents an outline of what is contained within the computer program. The
model has been tested by industry experts and shown to have excellent accuracy in
projecting true water treatment costs for a number of plants of different brackish and sea
water capacities.


Title:
Pilot Testing of Microfiltration as Pretreatment to Reverse Osmosis Seawater Desalination


Title:
Gulf Coast Desalination: Siting and Economic Feasibility Study Analysis

Abstract:
PB Water conducted a siting and economic feasibility study for Tampa Bay Water to assess the viability of developing a second seawater desalination plant in the Tampa Bay area. Tampa Bay Water is a governmental agency created to provide high quality wholesale drinking water to Hillsborough, Pasco and Pinellas Counties and the cities of New Port Richey, St. Petersburg and Tampa.  Tampa Bay Water Master Water Plan calls for significant reduction in groundwater pumping of its wellfields. To makeup for pumping cutbacks and to accommodate growth in the region, the agency must replace about half of the region's current supplies – currently all groundwater – by 2007.  

Seawater desalination plays an important role in this plan because it is a drought-proof method of producing large amounts of high-quality drinking water in an environmentally sound and sustainable manner.  Currently, the Master Water Plan has two seawater desalination projects. The first desalination plant is under construction on Tampa Bay in southern Hillsborough County.  A siting and economic feasibility study was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of a second desalination plant, the Gulf Coast Desalination, along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in north Pinellas and South Pasco counties.

The evaluation consisted of determining the most favorable location(s) based on criteria such as site limitations, source water quality and desalination process-type, environmental issues, permitting, concentrate disposal options, product delivery points, and economic feasibility. The initial production capacity of the second seawater desalination plant would be at least 10 mgd and possibly as much as 25 mgd.  

The study estimated the costs of producing and delivering fresh water from the bay, Gulf and Anclote River locations using a combination of intake and discharge options in addition to power plant co-location and co-generation opportunities.

The feasibility study concluded that a seawater desalination plant could be developed in an environmentally and economically feasible manner within Pinellas or Pasco counties.  The study estimated the cost of drinking water produced to range from $2.86 to $5.27 per thousand gallons depending on the selected site location, distance from intake, discharge and product water delivery locations, plant configuration and other factors.


Title:
Regulatory Framework for Membrane Filtration Under the Long Term 2 Enhanced
Surface Water Treatment Rule


Title:
Challenge Testing for Membrane Filtration Under the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface
Water Treatment Rule


Title:
Development of a Comprehensive Integrity Monitoring Program Under the Long Term 2
Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule


Title:
MF/UF Membrane Integrity Monitoring Methods


Title:
Development of a New On-Line Membrane Integrity Testing System

Abstract:
As membrane filtration systems are more commonly used in the water treatment industry, the
call for a reliable, fast and on-line integrity testing system has become increasingly important.
Especially where membrane filtration is used in potable water production for the removal of
pathogenic microorganisms, the integrity of such a system is of the utmost importance. Membrane
integrity testing can be performed in a number of ways, amongst which the pressure-hold or
vacuum-hold test and the diffusive airflow test are well known. Although relatively widely applied
in membrane plants worldwide, these methods have two major drawbacks: 1) the membrane plant
has to be taken off-line for testing, and 2) there is no direct relationship between integrity test data
and particle removal efficiency (log removal). At best an empirical relation has been established on
the basis of a number of integrity tests and microbiological analyses. To overcome the drawbacks of
conventional integrity testing systems, PWN Water Supply Company of North Holland and NORIT
Membrane Technology have developed the Spiked Integrity Monitoring System or SIM® System.
The SIM® system allows calculation of system log removal efficiency through the
measurement of the number of particles on both the feed and permeate side of the membrane. With
this method, there is a direct relationship between the removal efficiency and the measured particle
counts. However, in order to accomplish this the number of particles in the feed stream must be high
enough to produce useful test results. In applications such as UF treatment of clarified water,
particle counts on the feed side of the membrane are often too low to produce meaningful test
results. To address this issue, a system for dosing a limited amount of inert particles to the feed side
of the membrane during filtration has been developed. The inert particles are provided by a special
NORIT powdered activated carbon (PAC) that has a similar particle size range as that of the
pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia.
Spiking the feed side of the membrane with a high number of particles has a number of
advantages. Since the PAC particles are the same size or smaller than Cryptosporidium (typically 2-
7 µm) and Giardia (typically 4-12 µm), testing results demonstrate removal of these organisms.
Since PAC particles are essentially inert, they can be introduced into the system in filtration mode
and do not require the system to be taken off-line. Particle spiking produces a dramatic increase in
testing accuracy and sensitivity. The high number of particles on the feed side allows for measured
log-removal potential to well above 6. Additionally, SIM® pilot testing results show a greater
sensitivity for the detection of broken membrane fibers. One compromised fiber in a pilot system
causes a drop in log removal efficiency of 0.8 log with PAC spiking, versus only 0.2-0.3 log without
PAC spiking in the same system.


Title:
A New Approach for Continuous On-Line Integrity Monitoring of Membranes

Abstract:
Membrane systems are becoming a popular alternative to traditional conventional filtration
processes in the drinking water industry. This new technology brings with it concerns on how to
detect the occurrence of a membrane failure. It is possible, that if a membrane were to fail (e.g. due
to a broken fiber), untreated water, which would include particles and could also include active
pathogens, would pass into the filtered effluent stream. The result could be the contamination of this
filtered effluent with pathogens, and ultimately result in an increase of the risk for waterborne
disease. Thus, the regulatory authorities associated with the drinking water industry are promoting
that membrane effluent be more effectively monitored. 1
Current membrane integrity monitoring methods have been limited. Of these, the pressure
decay test (referred to as a direct method) is the most common for integrity monitoring. The test has
proven to be effective in the detection of membrane integrity loss, but the practice requires that an
entire membrane rack be taken off-line to perform this test. This method's effectiveness is limited to
the frequency at which the pressure decay test is performed. If a membrane failure were to occur
between scheduled pressure decay tests, contamination with unfiltered (raw) water would continue
virtually un-detected until the next scheduled pressure decay test was completed. During this
intermediate time between tests, the probability of pathogen passage into the effluent stream
substantially increases. Thus, the need for a more effective on-line monitoring integrity technique
has been deemed a necessary when membrane filtration is applied to the drinking water industry.
To effectively monitor membrane integrity for pathogen risk reduction, several issues need to
be addressed. First, sample points should be located at each effluent stream that exits a module
(element). This provides for effective detection of particulate contamination prior to dilution by
several effluent streams from individual modules. Second, the instrumentation should possess the
sensitivity to determine when membrane integrity within a module has been compromised (tear,
pinhole, cleaved fiber, etc.). Third, each membrane module should be monitored independently of
the others within the same array. This provides the most rapid means failure detection and its
traceability. The cost of the instrumentation should be economical to allow for the individual
monitoring of each module. To date, these issues have not been addressed using current
instrumentation.
Turbidimeters and particle counters (>2 µm) are particle detection technologies that are
traditionally used to monitor filtration performance in conventional drinking water treatment. These instruments have been tested on their ability to effectively monitor integrity of single membrane
modules up to entire membrane racks. Their ability to detect a loss of membrane integrity has proven
to be ineffective or inconsistent. 2
The purpose of this presentation will be to introduce a new integrity monitoring approach for
membranes. Fundamentally, the approach is based on the fine scattering of light that would result
when a membrane fiber were compromised, which would subsequently release particles into the
filtered effluent stream. This new method is similar to traditional turbidimetric technology, with
optical enhancements that has increased the sensitivity to the level necessary to detect membrane
fiber failures.
This presentation covers how the design of this system can adequately address those issues
that were discussed earlier in this abstract. This design approach applies a unique technique, which
involves the multiplexing of a single high sensitivity particle detection instrument over a large
number of membrane modules. This provides a means to offer direct particulate monitoring of each
membrane effluent stream independently. This application also provides for effective monitoring on
a cost effective basis.
The application of the Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration processes to replace traditional the
drinking water filtration is an increasing trend that is expected to continue to over the next several
years. The advantages of membrane filtration in this industry are many, but one concern continues to
linger. This concern is that current integrity monitoring methods may not be adequate to guarantee
the health aspects of the effluent stream. The drinking water regulatory authorities often interpret
membrane filtration as a single barrier against pathogen passage. If pathogens happen to pass
through a membrane, there is no other means to detect or remove them prior to entering the water
distribution system. To address this issue, a new instrumental technique has been designed to allow
operators to respond rapidly to a loss of membrane integrity. This approach provides for a cost
effective means to adequately monitor each element within a membrane rack for integrity, which is
intended to help guarantee the quality of the effluent is indeed free of harmful pathogens. Basically,
this new instrumentation would serve as a secondary (detection) barrier against the passage of
pathogens beyond the membrane, which would further lower their risk to human health.


Title:
Brackish Water Supply Development Utilizing Multiple Aquifer Sources for RO
Treatment - Collier County, Florida

Abstract:
Reverse osmosis treatment of brackish groundwater sources is used, and will continue to be used, to
help meet the potable demands of rapidly growing Collier County. Large-scale development of fresh
groundwater sources near the major population centers is no longer feasible due to competing uses, the
potential for saline water intrusion problems, and perceived impacts to wetlands or other environmentally
sensitive areas. This paper focuses on the testing and evaluations that were conducted in order to design a
brackish water wellfield to supply a proposed reverse osmosis addition to the Collier South County Regional
Water Treatment Plant (SCRWTP).
Brackish water is known to occur within aquifers at depths of 250 feet below land surface and greater
in western Collier County, based on the results of previous hydrogeologic investigations conducted in the
area. However, aquifer yield and water quality conditions can vary greatly over relatively small distances and
with depth. A detailed program of testing and analyses was developed to: identify one or more groundwater
sources suitable for reverse osmosis treatment; assess the quantity of water available for public supply use;
estimate the pumpage induced, long-term changes in water quality with time; collect sufficient data to insure
the long-term viability of the water source(s); and to obtain a water use permit. The hydrogeologic
investigation included the drilling of several test wells to various depths at three separate sites, collection of
aquifer yield and water quality data, computer modeling to evaluate the impacts of the proposed pumpage,
and development of wellfield design scenarios.
Two aquifers suitable for use as raw water supply sources for a reverse osmosis treatment facility
were identified based on the results of the investigation. The Hawthorn Zone I aquifer occurs between the
approximate depths of 300 and 450 feet below land surface near the SCRWTP and is considered the primary
source of feedwater for the proposed reverse osmosis treatment facility. The Lower Hawthorn aquifer occurs
between roughly 650 and 800 feet below land surface and can also be utilized as a raw water source. Water
from the two aquifers can be combined and treated together because the water quality is relatively similar in
both units. Production wells tapping the different zones can be placed close to one another because there is
good hydraulic separation between the aquifer units. Overall capital costs are less due to savings on pipeline
and well site easements, and reduced infrastructure costs. The two aquifer sources combined have the ability
to yield adequate brackish water within a two-mile radius of the SCRWTP to supply a reverse osmosis
treatment plant with a finished water capacity of 8 MGD. Construction of the production wells needed to
supply the treatment plant is currently underway.


Title:
Optimizing the Design of a Surface Water UF Treatment Plant

Abstract:
The Alameda County Flood Control District Zone 7 needed to quickly expand the Patterson Pass
conventional surface water treatment plant by 8 mgd to meet increased demands expected by summer of
2002. The District selected ultrafiltration (UF) as the preferred treatment technology to meet the water
quality objectives and operational constraints at the facility, and identified two potential membrane
suppliers based on pilot testing. The District wanted to competitively bid the procurement of the
membrane equipment, but was concerned about the impact on project schedule and coordination issues
associated with an owner supplied system. The District requested competitive bids from pre-qualified
design-build teams to select the membrane system, and concurrently serve as the design engineer and
general contractor.
The District outlined the flow requirements and basic operational constraints as part of the
request for proposal, but allowed the design-build teams to select the level of pretreatment, membrane
equipment sizing and installation methods that resulted in the lowest present worth cost. The proposal
from CDM Engineers & Constructors Inc. (E&C) utilized the AquaSource UF system and a ferric
chloride pre-treatment process, and was selected based on lowest present worth cost.
The inclusion of a pre-treatment process allowed the design flux to be increased 42% to 88
gallons per sq ft per day compared to treating the raw water directly. This reduced the membrane
equipment capital costs, and the operational costs for backwashing, chemical cleaning and recirculation
pumping. The cost savings were compared to the additional costs for different types of raw water
clarification to determine if the there was a net savings. The pretreatment option also resulted in reduced
disinfection costs due to increased Giardia removal credit granted for a multi-barrier treatment approach
in California. During the development of the DB proposal the design team worked directly with the
construction estimators using isstreetls pricing to compare options. This meant the costs used for
comparison were the same one used to prepare the bid, so the District directly benefited from the
optimization process.
As of June 1, plant construction is 90% complete and will be on-line by July 2002. During the
start-up phase, the ferric chloride coagulant dose will be optimized to minimize the overall operating
cost of the UF equipment and raw water clarifier. Information from the existing clarification process
feeding the conventional filters and UF pilot testing data using ferric chloride and other coagulants will
be used for benchmarking.


Title:
Case Studies: UF of Municipal/Industrial Secondary Effluent for Water ReUse

Abstract:
This paper presents results from pilot and demonstration studies conducted over the past two
years at various locations around the world. All studies were conducted on municipal secondary
effluent. Data includes: feed water quality, effluent quality (BOD, COD, bacteriological, SDI, others),
membrane flux rate, water recovery percentage, membrane permeability, cleaning procedures, cleaning
frequency and cleaning results. All data was collected by either the municipality or a consulting
engineering firm and is thus independent of Zenon. This paper also includes design information for a
number of full scale plants using ultrafiltration to treat secondary effluent.


Title:
Technologies for the Desalination of Brackish Water and Seawater

Abstract:
This TechCommentary describes and compares various technology applications for brackish or seawater desalination. A typical desalination process is Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR). This application employs a membrane process for desalinating water with 2,000 parts per million (ppm) total disolved solids (TDS) or less as per Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines. It is concluded that the application of appropriate technology is dependent upon the characteristics of the feed water and the desired quality of the product water. However, EDR was the selected desalination process overall, because the product water meets or exceeds EPA drinking water guidelines. Desalination of seawater and brackish water is described, the technology applications are diagrammed in figures and schematics, and the various technology applications are compared in two tables. Two case studies conducted in Robinson, Texas and in Sherman, Texas are also presented in this document.


Title:
Inland Concentrate Disposal: A Review of All the Technologies Currently in Use for the Disposal of Desalination Concentrates in Inland Regions

Abstract:
Development of inland desalination operations in the U.S. (primarily in Florida and California) is constrained by the availability of environmentally safe methods for disposing reject concentrates. Concentrates can have salinity levels over 50,000 ppm as well as concentrated toxic substances. The main concern is that such concentrates can leach into current or future water sources. Current disposal practices such as ocean disposal, public sewer disposal, deep well injection and evaporation pond solidification are discussed. Each of these has some disadvantage which impacts expansion. A new approach in southern California involves construction of parallel, non-reclaimable sewer lines or "interceptors" for concentrates and other industrial wastes. This approach, which could be expanded to applications in other parts of California as well as Florida, enables inland generated concentrates to be safely disposed of in the ocean. In addition to interceptors, techniques of concentrate volume reduction are discussed which could extend current disposal operations. Virtually all new or improved methods for disposal will add to the effective cost of new water sources.


Title:
Membrane Pretreatment of Reclaimed Wastewater for Reverse Osmosis Desalination

Abstract:
Advanced water treatment (AWT) processes based on microporous membranes, such as microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF), followed by reverse osmosis (RO) have become the industry standard for the treatment of municipal wastewater in indirect potable reuse projects. This Brief follows a wastewater reclamation project developed by California's Orange County Water and Sanitation Districts (OCWD&OCSD) that is slated to begin in 2003 and will ultimately produce 20 percent of the fresh water supply used to recharge the Orange County groundwater basin. OCWD has been working with the California Energy Commission, EPRI, and Southern California Edison to evaluate different MF and UF pretreatment options for RO. Results indicate that low-pressure microporous membranes provide exceptional treatment prior to RO desalination. Future testing will focus on identifying the factors that lead to membrane failure, and evaluating innovative membrane systems which can be retrofitted into existing wastewater treatment structures such as clarifiers and aeration basins. Project background details, a technology overview, and the current status of this research are provided.


Title:
Technologies for Improving Water Desalination

Publication:
Report TB-113727 - Technical Brief - Available On-line

Abstract:
Due to the high salinity of the Colorado River, the major water source for much of the Southwest, a study was conducted to compare capacitive deionization (CDI) with carbon aerogel and reverse osmosis (RO) for salinity reduction. Conventional treatment (flocculation, sedimentation, and dual media filtration), ozone and biologically active filters, and microfiltration (MF) as the pretreatment step were the methods used in the comparison. This Technical Brief presents the details of this study: a summary, background, technology overview, current status of research, the findings based on the results to date, and ongoing research activities.


Title:
Modeling of Brine Disposal in Oceans: A Personal-Computer-Based Modeling Program to Predict the Dilution and Plume Trajectory of Discharging Brine into the Ocean

Publication:
Report CR-102486 Center Report - Available On-line

Abstract:
As a result of increased interest by US utilities and water agencies in seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO), EPRI sponsored a program to evaluate the behavior and effects of brine concentrate discharges from desalination plants to the ocean. Particular interest is for both offshore submerged discharges for large desalination plants (15-50 MGD) and nearshore surface discharges for small desalination plants (1-15 MGD).
Previous seawater distillation systems with recovery ratios of 10-20% and temperature elevations of 10 degrees C have brine discharges with positive buoyancy and rising plume effluents. The trend towards SWRO with recovery ratios up to 50% poses a potential problem because the dense SWRO brine sinks rapidly to the ocean floor and may threaten the benthic environment. Many studies have been done on the discharge of positively buoyant effluents in the ocean; however, little work has been done on the behavior and effects of negatively buoyant effluents including brine discharges.
US EPA discharge rules were adopted to classify brine discharge, and suggestions were made for mixing zone definitions and dilution criteria based on the tolerance of biota to higher salinities. Under the EPRI program the CORMIX computer code was extended to B-CORMIX (Brine-CORMIX) to enable the modeling of both submerged and surface brine discharges. The CORMIX/B-CORMIX family codes was used to investigate several brine discharge scenarios, including pure brine and brine-discharged with wastewater.
The principal conclusions of this study are:
- dense brine discharges can impact the benthic environment
- an effluent dilution to 1 ppt above ambient is a conservative guideline for initial studies to limit the benthic impact; however, site specific impact evaluations should be performed
- the dilution of dense brine effluents to 1 ppt above the ambient is achievable in reasonable distances from the discharge point
- the CORMIX/B-CORMIX codes can be used to predict the dispersion of concentrated brine discharges and co-discharge options.
- co-discharges appear beneficial


Title:
Membrane Research for Water and Wastewater Treatment

Publication:
Report 1005966 Technology Review - Available On-line

Abstract:
This document summarizes two research projects involving the use of membranes in water treatment:
- Technologies for Improving Water Desalination -- The objectives of this study were to compare capacitive deionization (CDI) with carbon aerogel and reverse osmosis (RO) for salinity reduction using conventional treatment, conventional treatment with ozone and biologically active filters, and microfiltration as the pretreatment step.
- Membrane Pretreatment of Reclaimed Wastewater for Reverse Osmosis Desalination -- This study presents data and observations from an Orange County Water and Sanitation Districts wastewater reclamation project, with the purpose of identifying the optimum features of a pretreatment membrane system for RO.


Title:
Water and Wastewater Technology Demonstration Projects

Publication:
Report 1007110 Technical Update - Available On-line

Abstract:
This project was funded jointly by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Southern California Edison (SCE), and the California Energy Commission (CEC), with project management by SCE. The primary objective was to identify and develop technologies that could help California's water/wastewater industry reduce the cost of water and wastewater treatment and improve the overall operation at treatment facilities. Metropolitan Water District (MWD) and Orange County Water District (OCWD) were commissioned to perform a research project that encompassed the following areas:
- Desalination of Colorado River water
- Pulsed ultraviolet (UV) research on disinfection and biofouling control of surface water
- Reduction of bromate formation in an ozonation process
- Disinfection of reclaimed water
- Low pressure membrane technology for reclaimed water
- Electron beam technology for trace organics removal
The research study was successful in demonstrating microporous membrane and low-pressure reverse osmosis (RO) membrane applications in both surface and reclaimed water. Pulsed UV was found to have significant advantages over conventional disinfection chemicals and can reduce but not entirely replace these chemicals. Electron beam technology also showed promise in trace organics destruction and can be cost competitive in the near future. When commercially implemented, these technologies can greatly reduce current energy consumption in water/wastewater treatment while improving the quality and performance of the product water.
This research study represents a significant advancement in science and technology for the California municipal water and wastewater industry. Additional research and demonstration funding, however, is needed to expand on existing promising technologies and to accelerate the commercial deployment of these technologies.


Title:
Water and Energy Clear Solutions Newsletter

Publication:
Newsletter  NL-113029  - Available On-line

Abstract:
This edition of the newsletter describes current projects being undertaken by EPRI's Northeast Regional Community Environmental Center (NRCEC), recent EPRI reports of interest to the water and energy industries, and a calendar of upcoming events.


Title:
Desalination Study of Florida Power&Light Power Plants

Abstract:
This report documents a project sponsored jointly by EPRI and Florida Power&Light (FPL) to determine the viability of converting existing power plants to large-scale, dual-purpose cogeneration of power and fresh water from desalination. Of four desalination processes studied, reverse osmosis offered the lowest product water cost.


Title:
SWRO Energy Recovery Technology Shatters Design Barriers


Title:
Innovative Turbine Based ER System: Flexible  Reliable  Efficient Electronic 
Reintegration System

Abstract:
The Electronic Reintegration System (ERS) (Patent App. USPTO 
Nº 09/784.014), presented in this paper is a new method to recover the energy contained within the brine stream, frees the Energy Recovery (ER) turbine from its traditional configuration of being coupled to the shaft of the  HP  pump  and  motor,  eliminating  the  rigidity  imposed  by  a  purely mechanical system. Significant flexibility is gained on both the pump side and the turbine side, creating an ER method independent of the high-pressure pumping, which electronically adjusts to operational fluctuations to achieve an optimal recuperation from the first day of start-up. The ERS applies advanced technologies of solid-state electronics, with  proven  reliability  and  efficiencies,  to  create  an  ER  system,  which does not rely on any  experimental devices, processes, or theoretical  concepts. The innovative approach of the ERS is to use the rotational  techanical torque of an ER turbine to recover the energy in the brine as  electric energy and to electronically reintegrate it back into the main RO production chain. This new configuration allows the brine concentrates of  multiple train plants to be joined into one or more large streams, permits flexible selection of HP pumps to obtain better efficiencies in many  situations where it would not otherwise be possible, and frees the ER turbine  from  the  confines  of  the  RPMs  of  the  HP  pump,  allowing  for larger diameter runners and cups, permitting the Pelton turbine to achieve efficiencies of 93% for the first time within the RO industry. The flexibility, reliability, and efficiency of the ERS make it a very attractive and cost-effective choice for retrofit projects for both seawater and brackish water, where no efficient system is presently available.


Title:
A Novel Permitting Approach for Surface Discharge of a Membrane Softening 
Concentrate


Title:
The St. Johns River Water Management District's Investigation of Demineralization 
Concentrate Management


Title:
Municipal Membrane Plants: Growth, Trends, and Concentrate Disposal Practices 
and Issues

Abstract:
Community and industrial development in the United States have increased the demand for
potable water. Membrane desalting technologies (reverse osmosis Œ both brackish (BRO) and seawater
(SRO), nanofiltration (NF), and electrodialysis/electrodialysis reversal (ED/EDR)) are technologies of
choice to provide new sources for potable water through treatment of lower quality resources (brackish
and saline waters). At the same time decreasing quality of surface and groundwater has resulted in
increased treatment requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments. These requirements
include higher removal levels for disinfection byproducts, synthetic organic compounds, viruses,
microorganisms, and turbidity. Low-pressure, non-desalting membrane processes (ultrafiltration (UF)
and microfiltration (MF)) are increasingly used to meet many of these needs.
Statistics developed in a recently completed study for the Bureau of Reclamation (1) document
the growth and trends in the use of membrane technology to provide water and wastewater treatment in
the U.S. One of the purposes of this paper is to present these statistics along with statistics on the
disposal of concentrate (from desalting plants) and backwash (from UF and MF plants).
The other purpose of this paper is to discuss current and emerging issues and environmental
concerns associated with concentrate (and backwash) disposal. These issues include:
•Challenge of finding a suitable disposal option
•Perceptions of membrane technology and concentrate
•Major ion toxicity (which applies to desalting membrane processes where groundwater is the
source)
•Receiving water effects (which applies to SRO such as at the new Tampa Bay, Florida seawater
desalination plant)
•Need for additional treatment of membrane concentrate/backwash prior to disposal (due to
elevated levels of various contaminants)
•Need for new technologies and approaches to further treat and/or dispose of concentrate and
backwash
As part of this, details will be given of a new Bureau of Reclamation study into the further treatment of
membrane concentrate prior to disposal.


Title:
Concentrate Chemistry as a Control of Deep Well Disposal and Effects on Membrane 
Treatment Plant Design: The Tampa Bay Water Brackish-Water RO Water Plant

Abstract:
Density of the concentrate will control to a degree the design of the Tampa Bay Water brackish
water reverse osmosis plant in Pinellas County, Florida. The only viable method of concentrate disposal
is injection into a deep aquifer containing seawater. This aquifer has been used in the past for disposal
of treated domestic wastewater, which moved upward in the aquifer system in violation of federal and
state regulations. The upward movement of the effluent was caused by a combination of the low density
of the injected fluid compared to that in the injection zone and the added pressure in the zone caused by
high rate injection. To eliminate the potential for upward migration, the concentrate must be maintained
sufficiently dense to remain in the injection zone.
A 21-layer groundwater flow and solute transport model, using the SEAWAT code, was
constructed to assess the impacts of injecting concentrate with different total dissolved solids
concentrations at variable injection rates. The model was calibrated to historical injection monitoring
data at two well sites in Pinellas County. The calibrated model results showed excellent correlation with
past injection fluid migration. Model simulations were made for a range of concentrate densities and
injection rates. Modeling of the aquifer system showed that the concentrate must have a total dissolved
solids concentration of at least 10,000 mg/l for an injection rate of 1 MGD.
Two options were available for the design of the brackish water reverse osmosis plant, which
included designing the membrane configuration with additional stage using seawater membranes to
increase the concentrate density and the blending of the concentrate with seawater from a well tapping a
deep aquifer. The projected raw water quality allowed the plant to be designed with the additional stage
of membrane treatment to increase the concentrate density with the seawater blend from the well as a
backup.


Title:
Water Quality Enhancement for an Island Nation


Title:
Multi-Contaminant Removal by Integrated Membrane Systems


Title:
Multiple Applications of Membrane Technology for Water Treatment at a Semiconductor 
Manufacturing Facility


Title:
Florida Surface Water to Drinking Water: An Integrated Membrane Solution

Abstract:
The RiverBend Motorcoach Resort Integrated Membrane Water Treatment Plant
is one of the first dual membrane systems treating a surficial water for drinking water
production in the State of Florida. The system incorporates ultrafiltration (UF) as pre-
treatment prior to membrane softening. The plant includes a UF system designed to
produce from 40,000 gpd to 80,000 gpd, and a 40,000 GPD R/O system divided into two
20,000 GPD trains. The R/O system is expandable to 80,000 GPD through the addition
of two more, 20,000 GPD trains. This expansion will remain within the initial production
capacity of the UF system.
The water of the Caloosahatchee River in western Hendry County is an excellent
prospect for this innovative design. The river™s variable turbidity requires a pre-treatment
system that is reliable since suspended solids are detrimental to the performance and life
of a spiral wound membrane. Cartridge filtration alone would be expensive as the raw
water turbidity increases since filters will have a shortened operational life and would not
provide the degree of protection required. Cartridge filtration may not block all the
suspended solids from reaching the R/O unit. Ultrafiltration pretreatment will remove
virtually all suspended solids prior to reaching the R/O unit. Additional treatment by
membrane softening is required for color and organic removal. Due to time and budget
constraints a pilot study was not conducted, therefore, the UF system design is
conservative. As there are no other membrane plants operating on this source water, it
was not known how much the turbidity, suspended solids, and organic content of the
water may vary seasonally. From data obtained from operation of a conventional water
treatment plant a few miles away the designers were aware that significant algae and
suspended solids could be expected in the raw water periodically. Therefore the decision
was made to design the UF for a relatively low flux initially to obtain reliable operating data. Then based on successful operation of the UF, the operating flux could be
increased as additional R/O capacity was required. The conservative design will also
provide longer periods between backwashes and chemical cleanings, reducing operating
costs. Another benefit of UF technology is that UF filtered water can be blended with the
R/O permeate to increase capacity, providing the raw water color is not too high. The
system has been on-line since April 2002.


Title:
An Evaluation of 3 NF and 3 RO Membranes on Their Removal Efficiency of Atrazine, 
Nitrates, and Disinfection Byproducts from Two Surface Waters


Title:
Cryptosporidium Removal from Ground Water under the Influence of Surface Water 
using Ultrafiltration Membrane Technology: A Case Study at Bristol Water, in the UK

Abstract:
The UK Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) introduced Cryptosporidium legislation
in 1999, which established a final treated water standard of 1 oocyst/10 litre. The DWI
also specified that a Risk Assessment needed to be carried out for all water sources; any that
were deemed to be High Risk either had to be continuously monitored by an approved
auditable procedure, or had to be treated by an approved membrane process; this paper
describes a case study at Bristol Water in which the HYDRAcap TM UF system
has been installed at a series of 7 groundwater sources in response to this legislation.
The Bristol Water sites range in flow rate from 0.5 MGD (2 mld) to 4.0 MGD (15 mld), and have used a
generic process design, layout, etc. The first of the 7 sites, a 1.3 MGD (5 mld) installation at Frome, has been
in operation for 5 months, with stable performance at a permeability of 10.6 gfd/psi (250 lmh.bar). The feed
has normally been <0.2 NTU, with occasional spikes to 5 NTU.
Membrane integrity has been monitored daily using a pressure hold test. This test is
sufficiently sensitive to readily identify a single fibre break in the largest of the Bristol Water
racks, which contains 24 modules. For the 5 plants which have been taken into supply so far,
no broken fibres have been identified whilst the plants have been in supply, and only 2
broken fibres were found during commissioning.
Following the success of the first 7 sites, Bristol Water have extended the original contact to
include an 8 th site, a 4.8 MGD (18 mld) installation at Chelvey.


Title:
Comparison of Drinking Water Treatment Processes for Groundwater with High Total 
Dissolved Solids and Very High Nitrate Concentrations


Title:
Economic Comparison of Methods to Desalt High Nitrate Groundwater


Title:
DAF Pretreatment for UF: Cost and Water Quality Implications


Title:
Identifying and Resolving Key Design Considerations for Integration of Low-Pressure 
Membrane Filtration and Lime Softening Process


Title:
Implementation of the 8 MGD Tellico Lake, Tennessee Microfiltration Project - Cost and 
Performance


Title:
The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual: A Guide to Membranes for Municipal Water Treatment

Abstract:
Except for the basic principals, the technology of membrane water treatment has changed greatly in the past several years. The original EPRI Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual was written in 1992.


Title:
Eastern Municipal Water District RO Treatment/Saline Vegetated Wetlands Pilot Study


Author:
Boegli, W.J.; Jurenka, R.; Chapman-Wilbert, M.


Author:
Boysen, J., Harju, J., Rousseau, C., Solc, J., and Shtpan, D.

Title:
Evaluation of the Natural Freez-Thaw Process for the Desalination of Groundwater from the North Dakota Aquifer to Provide Water for Grand Forks, North Dakota

Abstract:
An effort was conducted to investigate at the bench-scale, and feasibility of applying the Natural Freeze-Thaw Process to saline groundwater (greater than 5,000 mg/L total dissolved solids) from the Dakota Aquifer in Eastern North Dakota to provide usable quality water for the city of Grand Forks, North Dakota.  The results of the study indicated that sufficient quantities of water can likely be extracted from the Dakota Aquifer, within close proximity to the city of Grand Forks to Augment the city's water supply by an extimated 1 million gallons per day or more.  The bench-scale simulation of the natural freeze-thaw process demonstrated that the salinity of this water can be reduced significantly and that treated water of less than 500 mg/L total dissolved solids can be produced with the process with great than 72% yield.  Economic analysis of the process indicates that a free-thaw desalination plant could be installed and operated that would produce 1 MGD of treated water at a total cost (including all installed capital and operations and maintenance costs) of $1.30 per thousand gallons.


Title:
An Electrolytic Chlorination system for Pretreatment and Post-treatment in Desalination Systems

Abstract:
The Uniclor registered  system is a commercially tested system for on-site chlorine generation from salt. Its characteristics are: Lower cost than hypochlorite solutions, safe and environmentally clean operation, a way to eliminate transportation and storage of chlorine or chlorine-containing chemicals, a modular in design to meet varying capacity needs, and is electrically operated for quick start/stop operation and regulation of chlorine produced.


Publication:
Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Florida, 2001

Abstract:
To better understand the values of water within different contexts and spatial scales, the emergy inputs to water were evaluated and compared at four scales: 1) global, 2) regional (the state of Florida), 3) local (water supply utilities), and 4) small-scale (home water purification). Emergy (spelled with an "m") represents all the previous work of one kind required to generate a product or provide a service. Since water can be found at all stages of the global hierarchy of biogeochemical processes, it has many emergy values and transformities. Transformities of water indicate the convergence of energy and materials that are required to produce the water. Global water storages were evaluated using the total emergy driving the geobiochemical processes of the biosphere and storage turnover times. Transformities for these water storages varied between 3.54 E3 sej/J (water vapor) and 1.05 E6 sej/J (glaciers). Calculated transformities for global water flows ranged from 3.96 E3 sej/J (precipitation) to 9.55 E5 sej/J (ice melt). Regional transformities of water resources reflected specific conditions of the landscape. The mean transformities for water in estuaries, rivers, lakes, wetlands and deep groundwater storages in Florida were calculated at 3.19 E4, 4.26E4, 5.64 E4, 7.09 E4 and 1.66 E5 sej/J, respectively. Eight local water supply utilities in Florida were evaluated to determine the emergy cost of producing potable water. Potable water transformities ranged from 1.39 E5 (West Palm Beach plant) to 1.39 E6 (Stock Island reverse osmosis plant).


Title:
Deep Sea Reverse Osmosis:  The Final Quantum Jump

Publication:
The International Institute for Water Purification 31 Loggin Hill Road, Concord, NH  03301

Abstract:
This paper presents the rationale and plan for utilizing the ocean depths to produce potable water at the lowest economic and environmental costs.  After more than fifteen years of land-based reverse osmosis development, commercial seawater RO plants can no longer be dramatically improved with regard to energy consumption, plant costs and environmental impact.  The final quantum jump for the improvement of seawater RO will involve membranes submerged in the ocean depths to achieve:  1) energy consumption levels at less than twice the theoretical energy of separation, 2) plant cost reductions of over fifty percent, and 3) the elimination of almost all current environmental impacts of desalting.


Publication:
CD Rom Produced by the Bureau of Reclamation, February 8, 2001

Abstract:
Jointly produced by Reclamation and AWWA, DESALNET is the only CD ROM database of its kind which ties together the wealth of desalination and advanced water treatment technology information available. The September 1999 release of DESALNET provides over 4000 searchable abstracts of:  (1) all OSW/OWRT reports, as well as full text of 10 selected OSW/OWRT reports; (2) American Membrane Technology Association (AMTA) conference proceedings; (3) International Desalination Association (IDA) conference abstracts; (4) National Water Supply Improvement Association (NWSIA) and International and Environmental Association (IDEA) conference proceedings; (5) all Reclamation and AWWA references regarding desalination, water purification, and advanced water treatment technology; and (6) other desalination and advanced water treatment technology references available in literature.  DESALNET is a continually evolving database which is updated annually. An updated version of DESALNET, containing all full text OWS/OWRT reports, will be available by mid summer 2001!  DESALNET uses EnigmaTM software. Minimum system requirements include: 486, 66 MHZ processor or better; 8 MB RAM memory; 30 MB free disk space; VGA monitor, 640x480, 256 colors; DOS 5.0; Windows 3.1 with compatible keyboard and mouse; ISO 9669 compatible CD ROM 4x speed with DOS extensions 2.23 or higher; Network: Novel 3.x or higher, Windows 3.11 for Workgroups or higher, Windows NT 3.x or higher, or any other Windows compliant Network. User friendly installation and operating instructions are included within the jewel case


Title:
Evaluation of two concentrate disposal alternatives for the Phoenix Metropolitan Area:  Evaporation Ponds and Discharge to the Gulf of California

Publication:
Bureau of Reclamation Water Treatment Engineering and Research Group

Abstract:
The salinity or total dissolved solids (TDS) content of the groundwater aquifer which serves the Phoenix metropolitan area increases evey year.  The salinity increase is attributed primarily to the following processes:  1) There is a significant volume of surface flow (i.e., Colorado River surface water via the Central Arizona Project [CAP] canal) into the Phoenix area and insignificant surface flow out of the area; 2) Municipal and agricultural use of the local water resources subjects these waters to evaporation and evapotranspiration which increases the TDS concentration.  The resulting high-TDS wastewaters percolate to the water table or are discharged to local surface waters that are hydraulically connected to the groundwater.


Author:
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO. Applied Sciences Branch.

Title:
Effects of Chlorine, Organic Solutes, and High pH Cleaning on Reverse-Osmosis Membranes for the Yuma Desalting Plant. - Final rept.

Abstract:
The Bureau of Reclamation performed an experimental study on the effects of selected chemical compounds on desalting performance of cellulose acetate reverse osmosis membranes similar to those used in the Yuma Desalting Plant. The chemicals studied resemble those in the pretreated feed water or in cleaning solutions to which the membranes will be exposed. Experimental membrane exposures included: high chlorine and simulated chlorine storage; elevated concentrations of bromoform, bromochlorophenol, and trichloroacetic acid, which represent by-products of chlorination; and high pH and elevated temperatures performed at conditions simulating membrane cleaning. Interestingly, a pH gradient across the membrane was observed during the cleaning tests.


Author:
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO. Technical Service Center.

Title:
Value Engineering Final Report. Project: Lake Meredith Salinity Control.

Abstract:
Lake Meredith impounds water from the Canadian River which emanates from Northern New Mexico. The project will install production wells in the valley floor and on the south bluff overlooking the canyon to intercept and extract the brine coming from the Tecovas formulation through fractures in the aquitard separating the Tecovas and Trujillo formations and thence into the river alluvium. The brine will be conveyed from the production wells to three storage tanks, a treatment facility, and the injection well sites in a pipeline. A waterline from the town of Logan is installed to provide a supply of service water to the treatment facilities.


Author:
Bureau of Reclamation, Yuma, AZ. Yuma Projects Office.

Title:
Colorado River/Yuma Desalting Plant Forecasting Model. Global Climate Change Response Program. - Final rept.

Abstract:
There is a financial and economic incentive to examine and study advance climatological weather forecasting relating to the operation of the Colorado River, particularly relating to the Yuma Desalting Plant (YDP). Operation and maintenance costs of YDP are highly variable depending on the accuracy and reliability of the long-term forecast. The report details progress of the Bureau of Reclamation's study, begun in 1988, to determine the possibility of improving accuracy and reliability of short- and long-range weather and climate forecasts. Modifications to the initial study have been made following consultation with 12 weather and climate experts. The study has been broken into three phases: (1) establishing a network of experts to facilitate data exchange; (2) deriving and/or integrating data and existing models for future operation of the Colorado River and YDP; and (3) testing, adjusting, and implementing a forecasting model.


Author:
Burke, J., Mickley, M., Truesdall, and Hamilton, R.

Title:
Usefulness of Networking in Membrane Plant Design and Operation

Abstract:
The 10.0 mgd reverse osmosis nitrate removal plant in Brighton, Colorado, was successfully started up in November 1993. As a means of insuring that the plant design would not only meet current and future needs but would also avoid practical problems encountered by other plants, the city utilized a network of existing membrane drinking water plants. These were plants that had experienced similar treatment problems and challenges. This network, due to the openness and willingness of the other utilities to share information, insights, and experiences, provided considerable help in the design process. Details of the cost saving benefits of the networking experiences are presented. The membrane drinking water plant survey developed for and included in the American Water Works Association Research Foundation's publication Membrane Concentrate Disposal should be helpful in establishing a network for utilities considering membrane treatment.


Title:
Desalination in South Florida : proceedings of a seminar held at MacArthur's Holiday Inn, August 21, 1987, Palm Beach Gardens, Florida / editor, O.K. Buros.

Publication:
National Water Supply Improvement Association, 1987

Abstract:
: Desalination is a separation process that treats saline water to reduce the dissolved salt content to a usable level. The three major desalination processes are distillation, electrodialysis, and reverse osmosis. Electrodialysis and reverse osmosis are used for desalting brackish water, while reverse osmosis and distillation are used to desalinate seawater. Distillation is the oldest and most commonly-used method of desalination. The commercial development of land-based seawater distillation units took place in the late 1950 's with the development of the multistage flash (MSF) concept. MSF plants have been extensively used in the Middle East, North Africa and the Caribbean. Two other distillation processes of importance for potable water production are multiple-effect and vapor compression. Electrodialysis is a membrane separation process of desalination. Reverse osmosis is a membrane separation process in which the water from a pressurized saline solution is separated from the solutes by flowing through an appropriate membrane. Two other desalination processes of interest are freezing and membrane distillation. Freezing has considerable advantages over distillation but the process is cumbersome, and has never been a commercial success. In membrane distillation, a special membrane allows the passage of water vapor but not liquid. This process is relatively new and its commercial success is not yet known. The major costs of production for all of the processes are energy, labor and amortization of capital costs. With the reverse osmosis and electrodialysis processes, membrane replacemnt costs are also significant. Desalination processes must prove economically feasible in the planning stage before such projects are undertaken.


Title:
Desalting as an Environmentally Friendly Water Treatment Process

Abstract:
This report summarizes the presentations and break-out workshop findings from a one-day seminar held September 11, 1994, as part of the American Desalting Association's 1994 biennial conference.  The seminar was jointly sponsored by the American Desalting Association, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Department of the Army, and the National Water Research Institute.  The purpose of the seminar was to discuss the environmental impacts of desalting.  The topics addressed in the seminar included desalting as an environmentally friendly process; military issues in field water supply; residuals from desalting; potential impacts of desalting on the environment; brine disposal inoceans; current and future research directions; and research on concentrate discharge in oceans and disposal.


Title:
Research Opportunities at the Yuma Water Quality Improvement Center

Abstract:
A one-day seminar was held on January 23, 1997, as part of the opening and dedication of the US Bureau of Reclamations Water Quality Improvement Center in Yuma, Arizona.  The seminar was co-sponsored by the US Bureau of Reclamation and the American Desalting Association.  The one-day event had three purposes.  One was to dedicate the SQIC, two was to discuss ways of encouraging desalting research using the new facility in Uyma, and three was to brainstorm research priorities under the Desalination Act of 1996.  A major address on the new directions in water research by Reclamation was given by Eluid Martinez, Commissioner of the Bureau of Reclamation


Title:
Thirsty Tampa Bay Ponders Huge Desalination Plant

Abstract:
The Tampa Bay area is wrestling with the ancient mariner's paradox: having water everywhere but not enough to drink. To combat the problem, the region is working to build the largest desalination plant in the Western Hemisphere.


Title:
A New Water and Power Combination:  Vacuum Vapor Compression Seawater Distillation and Natural Gas Fuel Cells


Title:
Biofouling of PVD-1 Reverse Osmosis Elements in the Water Treatment Plant of the City of Dunedin, Florida

Abstract:
Camp, Dresser and McKee Consulting Engineers, in May of 1993, requested the University of South Florida's Civil Engineering Department to assist them in solving the biofouling problems at the City of Dunedin's Water Treatment Plant. The City had identified the biological foulants to be Pseudomonos a and a variety of yeasts. A biofilm was forming on the lead elements in the first stage of all their reverse osmosis skids. A program consisting of a series of laboratory and field studies was developed to find a method for cleaning the fouled elements. A solution for preventing further contamination of the system was also to be developed in the second phase of the study.


Author:
Catalytic, Inc. for US Department of the Interior


Author:
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse (France).

Title:
Fuzzy control of water desalination plants.

Abstract:
In this report we have chosen a sub-system of an MSF water desalination plant, the brine heater, for analysis, synthesis, and simulation. This system has been modelled and implemented on computer. A fuzzy logic controller (FLC) for the top brine temperature control loop has been designed and implemented on the computer. The performance of the proposed FLC is compared with three other conventional control strategies: PID, cascade and disturbance rejection control. One major concern on FLC's has been the lack of stability criteria. An up-to-date survey of stability of fuzzy control systems is given. We have shown stability of the proposed FLC using the Sinusoidal Input Describing Functions (SIDF) method. The potential applications of fuzzy controllers for complex and large-scale systems through hierarchy of rule sets and hybridization with conventional approaches are also investigated.


Title:
Water treatment estimation routine (WaTER) user manual [microform]

Publication:
U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, [1999]

Abstract:
As with anything else, water treatment cost estimates are difficult to get a handle on without somewhere to begin.  This document and the spreadsheet program it describes are just that - a place to begin.  With minimal information, such as a rough idea of the water analysis and the capacity of the treatment systems, this program provides cost estimates based on theoretical equipment sizes and chemical requirements.  It is not intended to be a final design cost estimate.  It is intended as a tool for comparing different process options at an early phase in the planning process.  Processes included in the program are microfiltration, reverse osmosis/nanofiltration, electrodialysis, ion exchange, gravity filtration, granual activated carbon, disinfection and chemical feed systems.


Title:
Microfiltration with Rapid Backpulsing and Surface-Modified Membranes

Abstract:
Commercial samples of cellulose acetate and polyamide reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF) membranes were treated with an homologous series of polyethylene-oxide based surfactants to improve fouling resistance.  Various characterization methods were used to quantify membrae surface changes with treatment and fouling with a vegetable broth solution.  Streaming potential was used to characterize changes in zeta potential.  Atomic force microscopy was used to evaluate changes in surface topography.  Water flux and salt rejection were evaluated using a bench-scale "swatch-testing" apparatus.  Fouling layer thickness was evaluated using acoustic time doman reflectometry.  Results from these methods were compared with performance changes.


Author:
Chapman-Wilbert, M., Leitz, F., Abart, E., Boegli, B., and Linton, K.

Title:
The Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual:  A Guide to membranes for Municipal Water Treatment (2nd Edition)

Abstract:
The second edition of the membrane manual provides an overview of microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nonfiltration reverse osmosis, and electrodialysis processes as they are used for water treatment.  Performance evaluation, cost models, cleaning, and concentrate issues are presented as well as an extensive listing of membrane products currently available.  Membrane listing includes physical characteristics, performance data, operational limits, and comparative statistics for each.


Title:
Evaluation of Methods for Monitoring the Integrity of Reverse Osmosis Membrane Systems. - Desalting and water purification research rept. no. 55 (Final).

Abstract:
Several methods for monitoring the integrity of reverse osmosis membrane systems were evaluated in conjunction with a six month wastewater recycling project in McAllen, Texas. Screened, de-gritted sewage was treated with a microfiltration/bioreactor followed by chloramination, anti-scalant, acidification with sulfuric acid and reverse osmosis. On-line methods evaluated were different pressure across each stage, normalized product flow, salt passage, total organic carbon, particle count and particle index. Periodic methods evaluated were pressure hold test, dye challenge, UV analysis, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa counts. After the six-month baseline study, the membrane system was damaged purposefully in a variety of ways to find the change in response for each of the methods with a known level of damage. Methods were evaluated for ease of interpretation, labor intensity, and ability to detect damage. The highest-ranking methods were total organic carbon monitoring, UV-254 monitoring and dye challenge.


Title:
Biological impact of a large-scale desalination plant at Key West

Abstract:
Copper toxicology, thermal pollution of rivers, lakes, Key West Florida marine pollution.


Abstract:
This study was directed toward combining the Vari-RO Direct Drive Engine (VRO-DDE) technology with the highly efficient Vari-RO Electric Motor Drive (VRO-EMD) integrated pumping and energy recovery system for reverse osmosis (RO) desalting.  The engine technology provides the capability to use thermal power to replace more expensive electric power.  The ways that the VRO-DDE technology reduces desalting cost, and environmental impact, includes the following:  1) use of Ro which is the most energy efficient desalination process; 2) use of efficient positive displacement pumping and energy recovery; 3) use of thermal energy sources that are lower cost than electricity; and 4) by the efficient, and clean, use of these thermal energy sources.  By reducing desalting costs, this technology will help t make desalting cost effective as a viable method to augment natural water sources, and help to mitigate water shortages in many locations in the US and other regions of the world.  This technology advancement has resulted from the cross-fertilization of the following technologies:  modern hydraulic power transmission, computer control, desalting processes, and recuperated Brayton cycle thermal energy conversion.


Title:
Desalination Cost Savings of Vari-ROTM Pumping Technology

Abstract:
This U.S. Bureau of Reclamation sponsored Desalting Technology Program Research study was directed at a 30 mgd desalination facility to be located in the San Diego region. The overall objective of the study effort was to show how the cost of seawater desalination can be reduced through the use of an alternate technology, the VARI-RO super(TM) system (VRO), which is more energy efficient and environmentally attractive than existing methods. The VARI-RO super(TM) technology is a highly efficient, low cycle speed, low pulsation, variable flow, (+) displacement pumping and energy recovery system suitable for large capacity SWRO and BWRO projects. As compared to a centrifugal pump, energy recovery turbine, and variable speed drive system (CT); the following savings were projected for a 30 mgd SWRO facility: electric power savings 8 mW, percent savings 43%, five year cost savings $26 million, thirty year straight line savings $156 million. As compared to the California State Water Project (SWP), power savings of 5 mW (megawatts) were projected. This means that desalting seawater can be less energy intensive that importing natural water. Also, substantial environmental benefits were projected, including: air emission reductions and lowering of reject brine concentrations.


Title:
VARI-ROTM 'Low Energy' Desalting for the San Diego Region

Abstract:
Presently 90% of the water for the San Diego region is imported from Northern California, via the State Water Project (SWP) or from the Colorado River. The remaining 10% comes from runoff stored in local reservoirs. Population increases, the recent six year drought, projected shortages of water to supply the SWP, and contingency plans for emergencies (such as earthquakes) have stimulated a search for alternative water supplies. Seawater desahing is one of the primary aiternatives being considered.  Three feasibility studies for seawater desalination sponsored by the San Diego County Water Authority (SDCWA) have been completed in April 1991, March 1992, and the latest in June 1994; (Black & Veatch 1991), (Black & Veatch 1992), and (CarolIo, Laughlin 1994) respectively. These studies explored the possibility of using various thermal and membrane desahnation technologies, including multi-stage flash (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED), reverse osmosis powered by electric motors (ROM), reverse osmosis powered by steam turbines (ROS), and hybrid systems using both RO and MED. It was concluded in the March 1992 study that RO would he the most suitable technology for this 6x&y, using either the ROM or the ROS drive method. It was further concluded in the June 1994 study that ROM was the preferred method.


Author:
China Nuclear Information Centre, Beijing.

Abstract:
A HR-200 nuclear desalination system is proposed which consists of one unit of 200 MW(t) nuclear heating reactor and multi-effect distillation (MED) process plant. The output of processed water of the system is (12 (approx) 15) x 10(sup 4) m(sup 3)/d. The design characteristics and safety features of 200 MW(t) nuclear heating reactor are introduced. It is indicated that in the view of safety, economy and environment protection, nuclear energy as a substitute energy in the sea water desalination is feasible. The prospect of its application at dry areas in China and world is bright. (Atomindex citation 24:072713)


Title:
Comprehensive utilization with low-temperature heating reactor.

Abstract:
Using 5 MW low-temperature heating test reactor as experimental basis, the research of nuclear energy applications, such as heat-electricity co-generation, process steam supply, nuclear refrigeration and nuclear desalination of sea water is introduced. The emphases are in the principles, systems and parameters to realize the items mentioned above. The purpose of the study is to find ways for comprehensive utilization of the nuclear heating reactor at the commercial-scale. Therefore, the nuclear heating reactor could reduce its costs and have advantages to compete with coal-fired plant. (Atomindex citation 24:039067)


Author:
Corps of Engineers, San Francisco, CA. San Francisco District.

Title:
Monterey Peninsula Water Supply Project Supplemental Draft Environment Impact Report/Statement II

Abstract:
The Monterey Peninsula Water Management District (MPWMD) has examined 5 alternatives with the basic project purpose of providing a municipal water supply to the Monterey Peninsula that would provide adequate drought protection for existing residents and meet the long term water supply needs of planned growth. The overall project purpose is to provide adequate instream flow to protect the public trust resources of the Carmel River. The 5 alternatives studied are: a 24,000 AF New Los Padres Reservoir, either alone or combined with a 3 MGD desalination plant; a 15,000 AF Canada Reservoir and 3 MGD Desalination Plant; a 7 MGD desalination Plant; and No project.... Water supply, Dams, Section 404 permits.


Title:
Novel membrane Process with Rapid Backpulsing for Water Treatment

Abstract:
A novel membrane process which employs rapid backpulsing to reduce fouling was investigated for the treatment or pretreatment of water streams containing particulates, microorganisms, and/or oil droplets.  Various microfiltration membranes and operating conditions were tested for use with yeast suspensions, bacterial suspensions, oily wastewaters, and bentonite suspensions.  In the absence of backpulsing, in all cases, fouling caused severe flux decline.  Rapid backpulsing resulted in nearly a 10-fold improvement in flux for yeast suspensions at the optimal backpulsing frequency.  For bacterial suspensions, varying the backpulse duration and frequency resulted in more than a 10-fold improvement in the net flux.  Rapid backpulsing of bentonite suspensions and oily wastewater also yielded approximately 10-fold improvements over the values recorded in the absence of backpulsing.  An econimic analysis shows that membrane filtration with backpulsing is expected to yield water pretreatment costs approximately one-half to those obtained with conventional flocculation/filtration.


Title:
Current Regulatory Concerns Related to the Disposal of RO Concentrates in Florida

Abstract:
During adoption of the latest amendments on groundwater regulations affecting reverse osmosis (RO) discharge, the Florida Department of Environment Regulation (FDER) sought to encourage the use of reverse osmosis as a good way of utilizing groundwater of marginal quality. Chapter 187 of the Florida Statutes, which is the State Comprehensive Plan, lists 14 policies, the very first of which is ' to ensure the safety and quality of drinking water supplies and promote the development of reverse osmosis and desalination technologies for developing water supplies. The groundwater regulation codes, which were developed in 1983, classify groundwater into four classes on the basis of water quality as measured by total dissolved solids and geological confinement. These classes are discussed, as well as water quality standards for groundwater and drinking water standards. Last year FDER amended the secondary drinking water standards as they relate to groundwater and exempted existing facilities from compliance with the secondary standards, but they are still applicable to new facilities. Existing sources and new sources of groundwater discharge are dealt with in different ways in the permitting rules. Regulations concerning desalting with discharge of RO concentrates, such as regulations governing deep well injection of concentrates and construction and operation of underground injection wells are outlined. Arguments from FDER are presented for changing current regulations to reclassify RO concentrate injections wells as municipal rather than industrial, to relieve RO concentrate wells of tubing and packer requirements.


Author:
Downing, E., Coleman, A., and Bagwell, Jr., T.

Title:
US Army Reverse Osmosis Membrane Research Programs

Abstract:
The Water Technology R&D Team of the Mobility Technology Center, US Army Tank Automotive and Armament Command, has the mission to develop mobile water purification equipment to support army tactical operations. The current mobile water purifiers use reverse osmosis technology to desalinate raw water. The most significant problem encountered during 15 years of operations is membrane surface fouling. The water technology R&D team has sponsored several efforts to overcome the water production shortfalls caused by membrane fouling.


Title:
A Comparison of Membrane softening on three South Florida Groundwaters

Abstract:
This paper compares and contrasts the performance of one commercially-available softening membrane on surficial aquifer water at three different South Florida locations and the performance of two additional commercially-available softening membranes at one of the three South Florida locations. Data from pilot studies performed at each location along with established membrane performance equations were also used to develop a model which predicts the performance of membranes under differing operating conditions. In summary, the main findings of this investigation are: 1) The permeate water mass transfer coefficient was essentially the same for all three pilot locations and for the three membranes at the same location. This means that the pumping energy required to produce a certain permeate flow per a given amount of membrane area is similar for a full-scale membrane plant at each location. 2) The permeate salt concentration is a variable dependent on source water concentration and the salt mass transfer coefficient. For calcium, the mass transfer coefficient was different for only one of the membranes tested, so for the other two membranes the differences in source water calcium concentration governed the permeate calcium concentration. Other salts, such as chloride, had significantly different mass transfer coefficients, so the source water concentrations and the mass transfer coefficient both impacted the permeate salt concentration greatly. Also, as the permeate water flux is reduced for all the membranes, the permeate salt concentration increases since the salt flux does not vary with the variation in permeate water flux. 3) Membrane performance at different operating conditions than the piloted condition can be predicted using the established membrane performance equations, giving the full-scale membrane facility designer flexibility in the design of the membrane process.


Publication:
American Water Works Association :  AWWA Trends in Water Series

Abstract:
The utilization of membrane processes for the production of potable water has become a competitive alternative to conventional treatment processes.  Trends indicate that membrane filtration and ultrafiltration will play a more dominant role in the US surface water treatment market in future years.  The interest and use in membrane technology have been spurred by increasingly stringent water quality regulations, diminishing fresh water supplies in the US, and advances in membrane materials and construction.  Continual use of membrane processes for water processing will increase because of improved membrane performance and lower costs due to technological advances.  The development of membrane processes for widespread drinking water treatment application is limited by source water foulging and because of the fact that the disposal of concentrates from these processes can pose regulatory burdens for water pruveyors relative to compliance with the Clean Water Act and NPDES requirements.


Author:
Durham, B., Bourbigot, M.M., and Pankratz, T.

Title:
Membranes as Pretreatment to Desalination in Wastewater Reuse:  Operating Experience in the Municipal and Industrial Sectors

Abstract:
Water shortage problems are becoming more widespread and are encouraging users to treat difficult waters and to value the reuse of wastewater.  Membrane processes such as reverse osmosis (RO) have been used to treat such waters as well as seawater (SWRO).  The applications, particularly for wastewater, have been limited due to the sensitivity or RO membranes to fouling and the inefficiency of the conventional pretreatment process technologies used.  This paper reviews the benefits of wastewater reuse for industrial and municipal applications.  It demonstrates how continuous microfiltration (CMF) pretreatment to RO can reduce capital and operating costs of RO systems, improve their efficiently and enable reliable operation on a wider variety of water sources.  This information is supported by operational data from a number of CMF RO installations worldwide on difficult to treat feed waters.


Author:
Ebrahim, S., Abdel-Jawad, M., and Safar, M.

Title:
Conventional Pretreatment System for the Doha Reverse Osmosis Plant:  Technical and Economic Assessment

Abstract:
The conventional pretreatment method is widely used to treat surface seawater feed for the seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) process; however, this method is cumbersome and costly and has many drawbacks that lead to higher product water cost by RO desalination technology. This paper outlines the experience gained from 65 months of operation of a surface seawater conventional pretreatment system at the Doha Reverse Osmosis Plant (DROP) in Kuwait. The paper describes the pretreatment system used, problems and drawbacks encountered during the course of operation, namely: instability of Silt Density Index (SDI) value, high rate of chemical consumption, high rate of water consumption for backwashing and high energy consumption, and gives an economic assessment for the pretreatment system. The economic analysis shows that the cost for the conventional pretreatment system accounts for 26.7% of the total capital investment cost for a 4,546 m super(3)/d two-stage spiral-wound (SW) RO system, similar to the one used at DROP. A 30% saving in unit product water cost could be achieved if a beachwell intake pretreatment system is used instead of the conventional pretreatment system.


Title:
Zeta Potential for Reverse Osmosis Membranes:  Implications for Membrane Performance and Feed Water Treatment

Abstract:
The streaming potentials of four different types of membranes have been analyzed using an electrokinetic analyzer (BI-ERA, Brookhaven Instruments Corp., Holtsville, New York). Three of the membranes are reverse osmosis membranes, including an asymmetric cellulose acetate blended membrane, a fully aromatic polyamide thin-film composite membrane, and a thin-film composite membrane with enhanced rejection. The fourth membrane is a thin-film composite nanofiltration membrane. The streaming potentials of the membranes were determined over a wide range of pH using test solutions of inorganic salts (sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and sodium sulfate), humic acid, and surfactant.  Prior to the measurements of streaming potential, several steps were taken to ensure maximum repeatability of the measurements. First, templates, spacers, and formers were fabricated so that variations in the location and shape of the flow channel were minimized. Second, tests were performed to determine the maximum variation in the measured value of streaming potential with different samples of the same membrane and with different equilibration times after solution adjustments. Third, based on the equilibration tests, a procedure for preparing the membranes and performing the measurements was developed.  Zeta potentials were calculated from the measured streaming potential using the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation. Results show that all membranes display an i.e.p. (iso-electric point) at an acidic pH; the zeta potential is negatively charged at pH values above the i.e.p. and is positively charged at lower pH. In general, the surface charge of the thin-film composite RO membranes becomes more negative with increasing sodium chloride concentrations. This change is attributed to the close approach --.of co-ions. When calcium chloride is added to the solution, all of the membranes acquire a more positive zeta potential, most likely because of specific adsorption of the divalent cations (Ca*+). On the other hand, when sodium sulfate is added to the solution, the effect of the divalent anion (SO,*) is not as noticeable. Results for the experiments with Suwannee River humic acid show that with only a small concentration of hurnic acid in the solution, the membranes become more negatively charged over the entire pH range (3 to 10). The negatively charged functional groups of the humics dominate the surface charge of the membrane. The experiments with (SDS) sodium dodecyl sulfate also resulted in more negative zeta potentials over the entire pH range. This result is attributed to the negatively charged sulfate functional groups of the adsorbed surfactant molecules.


Title:
Zeta Potential of Reverse Osmosis Membranes: Implications for Membrane Performance. - Final rept.

Abstract:
This report, presents data and analysis of the streaming potentials of four different types of membranes measured using an electrokinetic analyzer. Three reverse osmosis membranes and one thin film composite nanofiltration membrane were analyzed. The reverse osmosis membranes consisted of an asymmetric cellulose acetate blend, a fully aromatic polyamide thin-film composite, and a thin film composite with enhanced rejection. Zeta potentials were calculated from the measured streaming potential using the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation. Results show that all membranes display an iso-electric point at an acidic pH; the zeta potentials is megatively charged at pH values above the iso-electric point and is positively charges at lower pH. Measurements were also made in the presence of divalent ions and humic substances.


Title:
Addition of Dimpled Plate Type Effects to Existing MED Plant Increases Capacity, Performance Ratio and Scale Control


Title:
Technology Advances Attractiveness of Desalination Against Traditional Treatment Alternatives

Abstract:
In August 1999, EnvironmentNOW® reported that the global desalination market was expected to more than double to $70B over the next 20 years. Although the technology to remove salts from seawater has been available for decades, the process has not been widely adopted to date, due primarily to its high investment costs. Since 1999, however, new desalination plants are growing in popularity worldwide. The increasing attractiveness of desalination technology is attributable to a number of factors. Most notably, significant advances have been made in membrane technology.


Title:
Action Plan for Beaches and Recreational Waters

Abstract:
Identifies EPA's multi-year strategy for monitoring recreational water quality and communicating public health risks associated with potentially pathogen-contaminated recreational rivers, lakes and ocean beaches.


Title:
Our Living Oceans:  Report on the Status of United States Living Marine Resources, 1999

Abstract:
Reports on the biological health of fish and other marine plants and animals found in the United States


Title:
The Frances Desalter:  A Key to Water Independence on the Irvine Ranch

Abstract:
The Irvine Ranch Water District (District) provides potable and recycled water to a myriad of customers in Irvine, California. The District is also pursuing the development of two major brackish groundwater desalination projects and other innovative projects to substantially reduce dependence on constrained imported water supplies. Linear programming analysis of various alternative supplemental supplies has resulted in high priority for the Frances Desalter which would treat up to 11,000 acre-feet per year (af/y) of degraded groundwater consisting of elevated concentrations of TDS, nitrates, and hardness. At full development, the Frances Desalter would be one of the largest groundwater recovery facilities in the nation. The paper will discuss feedwater characteristics, alternatives for treatment process trains and plant sites, a concentrate disposal analysis, project economics, and the implementation program. Electrodialysis reversal (EDR), reverse osmosis (RO), or nanofiltration (NF) together with ion exchange (IX) were the treatment process options evaluated for treating the well water. RO is the presently preferred process. Four alternatives to dispose of the concentrate from the proposed treatment plant were evaluated. They are: 1) disposal to the regional sewerage system; 2) disposal to a proposed area-wide Irvine Brineline; 3) concentrate reclamation using EDR; and 4) a distillation concentrator. The brineline is the preferred option. Feasibility studies indicate a unit production cost range of $500-570/af; the District could save almost $10 million compared to projected imported water costs over the project lifetime.


Title:
Chapter 62-40:  Water Resource Implementation Rule

Abstract:
The waters of the state are among its basic resources.  Such waters should be managed to conserve and protect natural resources and scenic beauty and to realize the full beneficial use of the resource.  Recognizing the importance of water to the state, the Legislature passed the Water Resources Act, Chapter 373, Florida Statutes, and the Air and Water Pollution Control Act, Chapter 403, Florida Statutes.  Additionally, numerous goals and policies within the State Comprehensive Plan, Chapter 187, Florida Statutes, address water resources and natural systems protection.


Title:
DEP ANNOUNCES ISSUANCE OF TAMPA BAY DESAL PERMIT

Abstract:
Today, the Department of Environmental Protection gives notice of its intent to issue a permit for the proposed desalination plant.  On December 14, 1999, Tampa Bay Desal (formerly S & W Water, LLC), applied to the Department of Environmental Protection for a National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit to construct and operate a desalination plant. The facility would be co-located with Tampa Electric Company's Big Bend facility and would draw approximately 44 million gallons of water per day from TECO's cooling water stream to produce 25 million gallons of potable water per day.


Title:
DEP TO HOSTS TECO BIG BEND PERMIT MODIFICATION PUBLIC MEETING

Abstract:
The Department of Environmental Protection's Division of Water Resource Management is conducting a public meeting to discuss the specifics of the Department's issuance of a Draft Permit modification that will allow for the inclusion Tampa Bay Desal's (formerly S & W Water, LLC) desalination facility discharge within the existing TECO Big Bend cooling water discharge canal. The meeting will also include the opportunity for the public to provide official comment on the project. The meeting will be recorded for broadcast at a later date on Hillsborough County Television Channel 22, and will be available for viewing on the Time Warner Communications and Adelphia cable companies.


Title:
Desalination Permit Judged Environmentally Sound

Abstract:
The final permit for construction of Florida’s first desalination plant protects the environment and can be issued without any changes by the Department of Environmental Protection, according to a judge who ruled on a legal challenge by the interest group Save Our Bay, Air and Canals.


Title:
EP’s Annual Status Report on Regional Water Supply Planning - November 2000

Abstract:
Each year, the Department of Environmental Protection prepares a Status Report on regional water supply planning (s. 373.0361(5), F.S.). Since 1997, significant progress has been made in identifying water supply options to meet projected demands. The Suwannee River Water Management District determined that adequate sources of water exist to meet projected demands and a water supply plan is not necessary at this time. Within the past year, the South Florida and St. Johns River Water Management Districts completed their Regional Water Supply Plans (RWSPs). An initial draft plan for Northwest Florida is scheduled for release in late 2000. The Southwest Florida Water Management District distributed a draft plan in July 2000 and expects to approve the plan by March 2001.


Abstract:
The Florida Water Plan is divided into six chapters.  Chapter One addresses the Watershed Approach to water resource management.  Chapters Two through Five are organized around the four areas of water management responsibility:  water supply, water quality, natural systems, and flood protection and floodplain management.  The final chapter of the plan addresses management support coordination and evaluation.


Title:
JUNE 28, 2001, MINUTES, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION COMMISSION

Abstract:
The meeting was called to order by Vice Chair Nicholson-Choice at 10:25 a.m. on June 28, 2001, in Tallahassee, Florida. Due to the brief agenda, Commissioners Tropepe and Chapman participated by teleconference. Commissioner Tropepe, calling from West Palm Beach, and Commissioner Chapman, calling from Oviedo, identified themselves for the record.


Title:
Meeting the Demand for Water, While Protecting the Environment

Abstract:
The Department of Environmental Protection issued a permit to Tampa Bay Desal to build the largest seawater desalination facility in the nation. Projected to open in 2002, the $110 million plant will use an advanced technology called reverse osmosis to filter salt and other minerals from water in Tampa Bay to produce at least 25 million gallons of potable water per day for people living in the drought-plagued Tampa Bay area. DEP issued the permit after extensive environmental modeling by a multi-disciplinary team of scientists and engineers indicated the desalination and dilution processes at the plant will prevent damaging salinity levels from harming the water resources and natural systems of Tampa Bay.


Publication:
FDEP Agency Strategic Plan for FY 1997-2002

Abstract:
As one of Florida's state agencies, the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) is charged with implementing the State Comprehensive Plan (SCP) and other specific statutory duties and responsibilities.  One of the key mechanisms for describing how the Department fulfills its charge is the Agency Strategic Plan (ASP).  Every year by June 1, each state agency must prepare and submit a proposed three to five year strategic plan to the Governor's Office of Planning and Budgeting (OPB) and the Legislature for review.  As a complementary process to the preparation of an agency strategic pan, each state agency must also prepare a report on its performance in implementing the previous year's strategic plan.  A preliminary annual performance report is submitted to OPB for review concurrently with the proposed agency strategic plan.


Title:
Permit Issued for Florida’s First Seawater Desalination Plant 

Abstract:
The Department of Environmental Protection issued the final National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit to Tampa Bay Desal to build the largest seawater desalination facility in the nation.  Projected to open in 2002, the $110 million plant will use an advanced technology called reverse osmosis to filter salt and other minerals from water in Tampa Bay to produce at least 25 million gallons of potable water per day for people living in the drought-plagued Tampa Bay area. 


Title:
SOBAC vs. Tampa Bay Desal and FDEP Final Order

Abstract:
An Administrative Law Judge with the Division of Administrative Hearings ("DOAH") submitted his Recommended Order to the Department of Environmental Protection ("Department") in these administrative proceedings. The RO indicates that copies were served upon counsel for Petitioner, Save Our Bays, Air and Canals, Inc. ("SOBAC"), Co‑Respondents Tampa Bay Desal, LLC ("TBD") and Tampa Electric Company, Inc. ("TECO"), and Intervenors, Southwest Florida Water Management District ("SWFWMD"), Tampa Bay Water ("TBVV'), and Pasco County. A copy of the Recommended Order is attached as Exhibit A.  Exceptions to the Recommended Order were filed by SOBAC and TECO.  Joint Responses in opposition to SOBAC's Exceptions were filed by the Respondents and Intervenors.  The Department filed a separate Response to TECO's Exceptions.  SOBAC also filed "Supplemental Exceptions to Recommended Order."  Responses in opposition to SOBAC's Supplemental Exceptions were filed by TBD, TBW, and TECO.  The matter is now before the Secretary of the Department for final agency action.


Publication:
FDEP Third Annual Status Report on Regional Water Supply Planning

Abstract:
In 1995, an estimated fourteen million Floridians used more fresh water than any other state in the East:  7.2 billion gallons a day.  This enormous amount of water is necessary to meet the drinking water demands of the fourth most populous state, the water needs of more than forty  million visitors a year, and the irrigation needs of one of the nation's largest agricultural industries.  By the year 2020, over twenty million Floridians are expected to need even more water:  about 9 billion gallons a day.  Where will that additional water come from?  How much will it cost?  Who will pay for it?  Can we develop those supplies without damaging our irreplaceable lakes, rivers, wetlands, estuaries, and aquifers?


Title:
Water Pricing Alternatives to Conserve Florida's Natural Recourses

Abstract:
The primary benefit of water conservation rate structures to the environment is obviously protection of Florida' scarce and valuable water resources for future generations.  The overriding economic benefit is that a water conservation rate structure can result in cosumption reductions that are sufficient to dealy or possibly even eliminate the utilities' need to develop new, and potentially more costly, water supplies.  A water conservation rate structure offers an incentive for customers to adopt water conserving behaviors and technologies.  If effective, a conservation rate structure can quickly reduce water usage through economic incentives to customers.  It provides a direct relationship between usage and cost that customers can easily comprehend, especially if customers are provided detailed billing informaiton (see Alternative 6).  Also, relative to other alternatives it may be easier and more cost effective to implement.


Title:
Melbourne Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Plant Discharge Wastewater Facility - Consent Order, October 27, 1998

Publication:
Florida Department of Environmental Protection


Title:
Improved Method for Controlling Microorganisms Without Degradation of Membrane Equipment with 2-Step Water Disinfection by Chlorination and Chloramination. - Patent Application.

Abstract:
The invention relates generally to a water disinfection process that provides water disinfection capabilities in both the reverse osmosis (RO) pretreatment system and the RO membrane equipment while avoiding chlorine attack on both cellulose (CA) and thin-film composite (TFCM) RO membrane and particularly to the infection of ammonium salts into the chlorinated feedwater before it enters the RO system. The process may also be used for nanofiltration, 'water-softening' membranes and other membrane types.


Abstract:
The potential for silica scale formation in reverse osmosis (RO) systems is thought to limit recovery in many installations, which may unnecessarily increase costs. In the past, the standard industry design guideline has been to limit the maximum silica concentration to about 120 mg/l in the concentrate at 25 degree C (77 degree F) based on solubility data, such as ASTM D4993-89, and operational problems observed at field sites. However, data reported in this paper indicate that the nominal 120 mg/l silica limit can be significantly exceeded in many cases, but that silica scaling could occur at lower concentrations in other cases. The effect of variables, such as the presence of iron or other heavy metals, are discussed.


Abstract:
This survey of publicly and privately owned laboratories, facilities and pilot plant equipment in the United States capable of undertaking water research and technology development was initiated by the National Water Research Institute and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.  It is the first step to developing National Centers for Separation and Thermal Systems Research, where investigators can utilize existing equipment to conduct research.


Title:
National Facilities Survey. - Water treatment technology rept. no. 12 (Final).

Abstract:
This report is a survey of publicly and privately owned laboratories, facilities, and pilot plant equipment in the United States capable of undertaking water research and technology development. The survey was initiated by the National Water Research Institute and the Bureau of Reclamation as its first step in the development of the National Centers for Separation and Thermal Systems Research (Centers). The Centers concepts will facilitate water purification research through optimization of use of research resources, including facilities, making existing resources, facilities, and equipment available for investigators to conduct research. The survey contains information on 66 facilities in the United States.


Title:
RO Systems:  The Importance of Pre-treatment

Publication:
Proceedings of the 62 Annual International Water Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, October 21-25, 2001

Abstract:
The ability of reverse osmosis (RO) to produce a continuous and dependable water product has seen its use within the water treatment industry grow.  However, incorrectly designed pre-treatments to this technology can reduce the expected benefits.  Simon Gare, Ecolochem International Inc, UK, explores both physical and chemical pre-treatment methods routinely used with RO systems, and discusses some of the factors that are important when choosing the right pre-treatment.


Author:
General Atomics, Bechtel National, Inc., and Gas-Cooled Reactor Associates

Title:
MHTGR Desalination for Southern California


Author:
Gesellschaft fuer Technische Studien, Entwicklung, Planung m.b.H., Munich (Germany, F.R.).

Title:
Seawater desalination by wind-powered mechanical vapour compression plants

Abstract:
A seawater desalination plant is described the compressores of which are powered by wind turbines. (orig./HW). (Copyright (c) 1996 by FIZ. Citation no. 96:004529.)


Title:
Halophyte Crops and a Sand-Bed Solar Concentrator to Reduce and Recycle Industrial, Desaliantion and Agricultural Brines

Abstract:
Handling of saline wastewater generated from industrial and agricultural activities is an increasing concern in the western states.  This study was undertaken to ex;lore ways to reduce brine or concentrate volumes using halophytes then a sand bed prior to the final processing either through containments or salt production.  In the first part of the study, a halophyte shrub (A. nummularia) and two slat-tolerant grasses (Paspalum vaginaturm and Paspalum distichum) were irrigated with well water and cooling tower blowdown water for 4 years at a power plant in Tempe, Arizona.  Plants were grown in open plots (the results reported here) and lysimeters (previously reported) and results were used to assess the feasibility of using halophytes for the disposal of industrial brines.


Title:
Removal of Chromate Anions by Micellar-enhanced Ultrafiltration Using Cationic Surfactants

Abstract:
Micellar-enhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF) of chromate anions (CrO42-) from aqueous streams has been studied at 30oC using twice cationic surfactants (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and cetylpyridinium chloride).  The solution is processed by ultrafiltration using a membrane with pore sizes small enough to block the passage of the micelles and adsorbed ions.  Rejection coefficients higher than 99% are reached in optimal conditions of pressure, feed concentration in cationic surfactant, and percent filtered volume.  The rejection rate depends on the ionic strength and pH.  the increasing of ionic strength decreases the retention of chromate ions and the permeate surfactant concentration.  As long as the NaCl feed concentration is less than or equal to 100 mM, more than 88% of hexavalent chromium are retained and surfactant leakage was reduced.


Author:
Hammond, R., Eissenberg, D., Emmermann, D., Jones, Jr., J., and Sephton, H.

Title:
Large-scale Seawater Distillation for Southern California


Title:
Seawater Desalination Plant for Southern California


Title:
Integrated Facility for Municipal Solid Waste Disposal, Electrical Generation, and Desalination. - Master's thesis.

Abstract:
A preliminary design was completed for a facility that uses municipal solid waste as fuel for generating electricity and cogeneration steam for a seawater desalination unit. An average city of 100,000 population is the basis of the design. The design showed that heat from the combustion of municipal solid waste will provide nearly 2% of per capita electrical power needs and 7% of fresh water requirements. This thesis proposes a new arrangement of known technologies for use in Public Works. (AN).


Title:
The Pressure Exchanger N:  A Key to Substantial Lower Desalination Cost

Abstract:
After several years of R&D effort with strong ties to the Middle East, the first commercial installations of a revolutionary energy recovery system is scheduled this winter. Based on results from a small pilot plant operated in Norfolk, USA, power savings of more than 60% will result in seawater RO desalination for conditions prevailing in the Arabian Gulf area. Moreover, the simplicity and operational characteristic will reduce the need for large number of production trains and this will further reduce the capital and operational cost of larger plants. After a successful demonstration in 1989 of a working prototype Pressure Exchanger (PE), a 3 year R&D program was started 1990 with Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) to develop a viable energy recovery device for RO-desalting. Extensive test facilities were erected at Doha Reverse Osmosis Plant (DROP), where initial efforts were directed towards establishing a fundamental understanding of the hydromechanics involved. The prototype was equipped with an extensive dataacquisition system, and test results were used for calibration of mathematical models used in numerical simulations. The unit was on running display during the Fourth World IDA (International Desalination Association) Conference in Kuwait 1989. Unfortunately, the program had to be suspended during the Gulf War and the rebuilding efforts, but may resume in some form in the near future.


Title:
Water board green-lights desalination plant on bay

Publication:
St. Petersburg Times, published March 16, 1999

Abstract:
In a landmark decision, regional water officials decided Monday to proceed with plans to build the western world's largest desalination plant on Tampa Bay in south Hillsborough County.


Title:
Indian River Plantation:  The Evolution, 16-year History and Operating Experience of the Oldest Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Plant on Hutchinson Island (FL)

Abstract:
Hutchinson Island is a barrier island 100 miles north of Miami, Florida accessible by a drawbridge. When developed in the 1970's a source of drinking and golf course irrigation water was the brackish Floridan aquifer. A deep artesian well was installed and RO chosen for treatment. Dedication of the personnel is considered a primary reason for longevity of the plant.


Title:
Seawater Desalting for Southern California:  Technical and Economic Considerations

Abstract:
Dual-purpose plants, combined facilities which produce both potable water and electricity, are common for large seawater desalination projects in the Middle East, and interest in these plants in the United States is growing. The San Diego County Water Authority (CWA) imports water which serves approximately 90% of the total water demand in San Diego County, California. As part of its long range planning effort to investigate various water supply alternatives to meet the County's growing demand for water, CWA is considering the use of desalination to convert seawater to drinking water. Recently, two studies of dual purpose plants were conducted for the CWA and San Diego Gas and Electric Company (SDGE). The first study explored the feasibility of installing a new combined-cycle power installation with the desalination plant. Two dual-purpose plants which would be located at two existing SDGE sites (Encina and South Bay, CA) were considered. The second study only considered the South Bay site with a re-powered power plant in lieu of a new combined-cycle facility. Each study included only those processes that are commercially available and with proven designs. The processes included were thermal distillation (multi stage flash and multi effect), and membrane systems (reverse osmosis with motor and steam drives for high pressure pumps). It was concluded that primary energy usage could be substantially reduced through use of a dual purpose plant. For the South Bay site the most cost-effective process would include reverse osmosis using steam drives and a post-treatment system blending brackish water with the product from the desalination process.


Author:
Hightower, S., Price, K. and Henthorne, L.

Title:
The US Bureau of Reclamation's Research Program in Water Treatment and Desalting Technologies

Abstract:
This paper discusses a brief history of desalting research within the Department of the Interior, Office of Saline Water and the Office of Water Research and Technology, as well as the current desalting research programs within the Bureau of Reclamation. An overview is provided on the research that has been accomplished under Reclamation's Yuma Desalting Research Program over the past 12 years, as well as its Water Treatment Technology Program over the past 2 years. Information is also presented on specific on-going desalting research projects. These include a report published on "National Desalting and Water Treatment Needs Survey", an RO pilot plant being tested to recover groundwater while using the reject flow for a wetlands project; cost-shared studies on improved performance and cost of membranes, membrane fouling, biocides, desalting cogeneration 
systems, nanofiltration systems, freeze desalination, an improved RO pumping and energy recovery system, a mobile water treatment pilot plant, as well as a "Desalting and Water Treatment Membrane Manual" that has been published on the latest state-of-the-art membranes.


Title:
Innovative Wastewater Reclamation Financing Applied to Desalination Projects

Abstract:
Two case studies of innovative wastewater reclamation financing are described (The Orange County Water District and the West Basin Municipal Water District), and recommendations are given.


Author:
International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (Austria).

Title:
Technical and economic evaluation of potable water production through desalination of seawater by using nuclear energy and other means.

Abstract:
The present report contains an assessment of the need for desalination, information on the most promising desalination processes and energy sources, as well as on nuclear reactor systems proposed by potential suppliers worldwide. The main part of the report is devoted to evaluating the economic viability of seawater desalination by using nuclear energy, in comparison with fossil fuels. This evaluation encompasses a broad range of both nuclear and fossil plant sizes and technologies, and combinations with desalination processes. Finally, relevant safety and institutional aspects are briefly discussed. 27 refs, figs and tabs. (Atomindex citation 24:007848)


Title:
Floating nuclear energy plants for seawater desalination. Proceedings of a technical committee meeting.

Abstract:
Floating nuclear desalination facilities are one of the alternatives being considered. They may offer a particularly suitable choice for remote locations and small island or coastal communities where the necessary manpower and infrastructure to support desalination plants are not available. In the interest of focusing specific attention on the technology of floating nuclear desalination, the IAEA sponsored a Technical Committee Meeting on Floating Nuclear Plants for Seawater Desalination from 29 to 31 May 1995 in Obninsk, Russian Federation. This publication documents the papers and presentations given by experts from several countries at that meeting. It is hoped that the information contained in this report will be a valuable resource for those interested in nuclear desalination, and that it will stimulate further interest in the potential for floating nuclear desalination facilities. Refs, figs, tabs. (Atomindex citation 28:047304)


Title:
Options identification programme for demonstration of nuclear desalination

Abstract:
This report responds to Resolutions GC(XXXVIII)/RES/7 in 1994 and GC(XXXIX)/RES/15 in 1995 at the IAEA General Conference, which requested the Director General to initiate a two year Options Identification Programme to identify and define practical options for demonstration of nuclear desalination and to submit a report on this programme to the General Conference of 1996. This programme was implemented by a Working Group, consisting of experts from interested Member States and IAEA staff, through a combination of periodic meetings and individual work assignments. It resulted in identification of a few practical options, based on reactor and desalination technologies which are themselves readily available without further development being required at the time of demonstration. The report thus provides a perspective how to proceed with demonstration of nuclear desalination, which is expected to help solving the potable water supply problem in the next century. Refs, figs, tabs. (Atomindex citation 28:008683)


Title:
A Resistance Model for Evaluating Interactions Between Natural Organic Matter (NOM) and Membranes at Different Scales of Operation (Desalination Research and Development Program Report #44)

Abstract:
This research evaluated and compared NOM fouling of membranes at different scales of operation.  The approach of this research was to interpret NOM fouling in terms of NOM-membrane interactions.  Two different sources of surface water and two different membranes were tested to provide variation in the intrinsic properties which affect NOM-membrane interations.  Each water-membrane combination was tested at three different scales of operation.  Permeate flux declined through time and was attributed to the development of a NOM gel layer on the membrane surface.


Title:
Experience in Reverse Osmosis Pretreatment

Abstract:
To prevent reverse osmosis (RO) membrane fouling, all the organic, colloidal and biological matter needs to be removed from the feed water to the RO system.  A proper pretreatment is therefore considered to be the key to successful RO plant operation.  A key component of the RO pretreatment process is the deep bed filter.  The purpose of this filter is to remove suspended matter such as the precipitates of coagulation and flocculation and various microorganisms.  This paper outlines the pretreatment steps involved in preparing the water to enter the RO membranes, with particular emphasis on filtration, which is considered the heart of the pretreatment process.


Publication:
Science Reference Section, Science and Technology Division, Library of Congress


Author:
Jolis, D., Campana, R., Hirano, R., Pitt, P. and Mari-as, B.

Title:
Desalination of Municipal Wastewater for Horticultural Reuse:  Process Description and Evaluation

Abstract:
The City and County of San Francisco mandated in 1991 maximum utilization of reclaimed water as a means of augmenting its water supply. A Master Plan is currently being developed that will implement a Water Reclamation Program. Potential users of over 27 mgd (100,000 m3 per day) of reclaimed water have been identified. These include industrial users, toilet flushing, decorative fountains, irrigation and landscaping. Almost all of these uses require reclaimed water that meets the most stringent wastewater reclamation criteria. This is true for the single largest potential use (53,000 m3 per day) which is the irrigation of parks, golf courses, and other open areas.


Abstract:
The Bureau of Reclamation in cooperation with the GRIC (Gila River Indian Community) and the cities of Avondale and Chandler, Arizona, performed this field study to determine the suitability of several water treatment processes on ground water that contains high levels of nitrate, chloride , and total dissolved solids.  This report provides general discussion of three water treatment processes - ED (electrodialysis), RO (reverse osmosis), and NF (nanofiltration).  Pilot scale testing of ED and RO reduced concentrations of nitrate, total dissolved solids, and chloride.  This report recommends the use of NF or ED membranes for ground water typical of the study area.  Cost projections presented in this report contain criteria to assist in the choice between ED and NF water treatment.


Title:
A Low-pressure Reverse Osmosis Facility For Marco Island (FL)

Abstract:
A 4 mgd (expandable to 6 mgd) low pressure RO facility on Marco Island, FL is described. The facility treats ground water of 6,800-10,000 mg/l TDS to supply 10,000 residents and up to 30,000 tourists in high season.


Title:
An Assessment of Desalination Technology for the Rosarito Repowring Project

Abstract:
An assessment of desalination technology was conducted with a view to determining the most feasible option for a seawater desalination plant as a thermal host for the proposed Rosarito Repowering Project in Baja California, Mexico. Plants based on low temperature multiple effect distillation (LTMED), reverse osmosis (RO) and a hybrid LTMED/RO system were evaluated. All three options were shown to satisfy the requirements of the U.S. Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) or a qualifying cogeneration facility. Subject to limitations on theaccuracy of the estimate (-5/+20%), the lowest water cost was obtained with reverse osmosis. In addition, certain site-specific
considerations such as power plant dispatchability and constraints on the expansion of the existing seawater intake system tended to favor the RO option.


Title:
Cogeneration Desalination with Reverse Osmosis:  A Means of Augmenting Water Supplies in Southern California

Abstract:
On the West Coast of North America where the seawater temperatures are cooler, reverse osmosis plants could also serve as thermal hosts for steam exhausted from the turbine. Thermodynamically, such a system would be very efficient as the steam would be used after it has been degraded to the lowest practical level required for power generation, and the reverse osmosis plant would benefit from the feed water preheating as the productivity (flux) of the reverse osmosis membranes increases by about 2 to 3% for every degree Centigrade rise in temperature. Studies were undertaken to assess the feasibility of integrating thermal and membrane desalination plants with combined gas/steam cycle powerplants. Three plant sizes (35, 75 or 100 mgd) were examined using the scenarios of a reverse osmosis desalination operation alone with water temperature of 62 deg F purchasing power at a commercial rate of 8 cents per kWh, or a reverse osmosis desalination operation combined with sea water feed taken from a powerplant cooling water return at 82 deg F and power charged at avoided cost of 4.2 cents/kWh. In each size plant the cost of water was significantly lower when the reverse osmosis was integrated with the powerplant cooling water.


Title:
Desalination Processes and Multistage Flash Distillation Practice


Title:
Desalination : a viable alternative for local government water supply planning in South Florida

Abstract:
Technical publication (South Florida Water Management District (Fla.) Resource Planning Dept.) ; 87-4


Author:
Kopko, S., Seamans, M., Nemeth, and Watson, I.

Title:
Desalting in Cape Coral, FL:  An Operating Update

Abstract:
For almost 20 years, the City of Cape Coral has operated a large municipal RO plant. That plant has grown from a blended water output of 15,200 m super(3)/d (4 mgd) to its present capacity of 57,000 m super(3)/d (15 mgd). It provides all of the potable water for the City of Cape Coral, and the City's future supply will also be desalted water.


Author:
Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Taejon (Korea, Republic of).

Title:
Study on the Economic Survey and Analysis for Seawater Desalination Plant using Advanced Integral Reactor.

Abstract:
Current status of nuclear desalination plant developments, design characteristics of nuclear reactors and desalination plants, which comprise the nuclear desalination plants, have been reviewed. Based on this review, survey on the possible coupling options has been performed and basic economic evaluation methodology has been investigated. The economic evaluation of the nuclear seawater desalination plant using Advanced Integral Reactor has been performed using the IAEA economic evaluation model for nuclear desalination plants with respect to nuclear-desalination options. The economic cost data of the Advanced Integral Reactor which are required by the IAEA model have been inferred from previous technical data and experiences related with economic evaluation of nuclear power plants by applying appropriate approximation and assumption considering characteristics of advanced Integral Reactor. And the given experienced values have been used for the desalination plant data. The results have been compared with the economic results for other desalination facilities using other types of nuclear reactors and energy sources. Also, sensitivity analyses have been made for major input parameters and variables. The evaluation results show that the seawater desalination plant using Advanced Integral Reactor has economic feasibility compared with desalination plant with other energy sources. 32 refs., 13 tabs., 25 figs. (author)


Author:
LaBar, M., Schleicher, R., Loh, G, and Walters, A.

Title:
Power and Water Co-Production Feasibility Study of Florida Power & Light Power Plants


Author:
Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA.; Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

Title:
Desalination with carbon aerogel electrodes.

Abstract:
An electrically regenerated electrosorption process known as carbon aerogel CDI was developed for continuously removing ionic impurities from aqueous streams. A salt solution flows in a channel formed by pairs of parallel carbon aerogel electrodes. Each electrode has a very high BET surface area and very low resistivity. After polarization, anions and cations are removed from electrolyte by the electric field and electrosorbed onto the carbon aerogel. The solution is thus separated into two streams, brine and water. Based on this, carbon aerogel CDI appears to be an energy-efficient alternative to evaporation, electrodialysis, and reverse osmosis. The energy required by this process is about QV/2, plus losses. Estimated energy requirement for sea water desalination is 18-27 Wh/gal, depending on cell voltage and flow rate. The requirement for brackish water desalination is less, 1.2-2.5 Wh/gal at 1600 ppM. This is assuming that stored electrical energy is reclaimed during regeneration.


Title:
Desalting in wastewater reclamation using capacitive deionization with carbon aerogel electrodes.

Abstract:
Capacitive deionization with carbon aerogel electrodes is an efficient and economical new process for removing salt and impurities from water. Carbon aerogel is a material that enables the successful purification of water because of its high surface area, optimum pore size, and low electrical resistivity. The electrodes are maintained at a potential difference of about one volt; ions are removed from the water by the imposed electrostatic field and retained on the electrode surface until the polarity is reversed. The capacitive deionization of water with a stack of carbon aerogel electrodes has been successfully demonstrated. The overall process offers advantages when compared to conventional water-purification methods, requiring neither pumps, membranes, distillation columns, nor thermal heaters. Consequently, the overall process is both robust and energy efficient. The current state of technology development commercialization, and potential applications of this process are reviewed. Particular attention and comparison with alternate technologies will be done for seawater, brackish water, and desalting in wastewater reclamation.


Author:
Lee, D. Hargreaves, J., Badertsher, L, Reign, L., and Kassir, F.

Title:
Reverse Osmosis and Activated Alumina Water Treatment Plant for the California State Prinsons Located near Blythe

Abstract:
To supply water to two California prisons located in a desert area on the west of the Colorado River an average of 1.7-5.2 mgd are required. Available groundwater had high concentrations of fluoride and TDS and a temperature close to 45 degree C. A water treatment plant using a combination of activated alumina and reverse osmosis units was selected.


Title:
Survey of US Costs and Water Rates for Desalination and Membrane Softening Plants

Publication:
US Department of the Interior Water Treatment Technology Program Report #24

Abstract:
This report is based on a survey by Leitner and Associates, Inc., of US costs and water rates for utilities that use desalination and membrane softening.  The report provides information on the following four processes:  reverse osmosis for brackish/groundwater enhancement; brackish electrodialysis reversal; membrane softening; and seawater reverse osmosis/distillation.


Title:
Whatever Happened to Seawater Desalting in the US? (Can the Trend be Changed?)

Abstract:
Installed seawater desalting capacity in the 50 states of the United States is currently 13 mgd. Only 3 mgd is produced on a regular basis, with the rest of the installed capacity on standby. This is a minuscule percentage of ambitious projections that were made 25 years ago. It is also well below the projections being made just 3 years ago. The 1992 IDA Worldwide Desalting Plants inventory lists eight seawater desalting plant proposed projects within the continental limits of the US with a total capacity of 67 mgd. Not one of these proposed plants is currently under active consideration as of this writing. Another plant not included on the list was under active consideration until early 1994, after which was the project was shelved. What has happened? Reading yesterday's newspaper is not for the action oriented, but if the seawater desalination industry is to move to a higher platform with improved growth projects, it will be helpful to review the dynamics that influenced the marketplace during this earlier period.


Abstract:
The Bureau of Reclamation prepared this manual to provide an overview of membrane element autopsy procedures.  This manual includes the procedures required to perform a successful and informative membrane element atuopsy; some documentation forms used to record the procedures and findings of the autopsy; some resources from which information can be obtained regarding autopsies; and material safety data sheets for several common biocides, preservatives, or dyes encountered during autopsies.  This manual relates only to spiral wound reverse osmosis elements and similarly packaged filtration membranes.


Publication:
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology/John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Abstract:
This article addresses water supply and use with special emphasis on the role and nature of water desalination.  The major desalination processes, using membranes or distillation, are described.  These are multistage flash evaporation (MSF), multi-effect distillation (ME), vapor compression distillation (VC), freeze-desalination, reverse osmosis (RO), and electrodialysis (ED).  The use of renewable energy for water desalination by solar stills, ocean-thermal energy conversions plants, wind and photovoltaic cells is presented.  Two of the key technical problems in desalination, scale deposition and prevention, and corrosion and the proper choice of materials to resist it, are discussed.  Basic equations are provided for the evaluation and preliminary design of MSF and RO, which are currently the leading water desalination processes.  The leading professional and governmental organizations involved with desalination, and their activities, are described.


Abstract:
It's a goal that's as tricky as it is tempting:  turning salt water into drinking water at a cost that makes it practical.  Engineers around the world, from Oman to Illinois, have been wracking their brains trying to make the technology cheaper -- and to get governments to fund more research.  The stakes are enormous but so far, advocates say, the investment in science and technology has not reflected that fact.


Title:
Initial Evaluation of the Subfloor Water Intake System Structure (SWISS) vs. Conventional Multimedia Preteratment Techniques


Title:
Surface Water Discharge of Reverse Osmosis Concentrates


Abstract:
Board approval is required to approve development of the Mechanical Integrity Test required by the regulatory every five years for the deep injection well in North Martin County. The test includes a video survey, hydrostatic pressure test plus a radioactive tracer survey and assures the Department of Environmental Protection that the deep well is properly functioning.


Title:
Proposal to Investigate Surface Water Disposal of Concentrate

Abstract:
Board approval is requested to allow Hutcheon Engineers to explore whether agency approvals may be possible for lower cost concentrate disposal options than the use of the deep injection well. This is a continuation of previous permit work conducted by the engineers in late 1989.


Title:
Examination of Processes for Multiple Contaminant Removal from Groundwater


Title:
California Turns Seaward to Slake Thirst For Water

Publication:
Los Angeles Times, February 18, 1991, p. A1


Title:
Desalination Through Methane Hydrate. - Patent Application

Abstract:
In one embodiment, this invention pertains to desalination of seawater by feeding methane into seawater at a depth exceeding 100 meters to form methane hydrate which rises to where it is decomposed into methane and water, and recovering water. Methane is recycled.


Title:
Build and Operate a Clathrate deslination Pilot Plant

Abstract:
This report presents the research, testing, and cost information developed in the design, construction, and operation of a clathrate desalination pilot plant.  The plant was constructed on-shore at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELH).  Construction of the pilot plant was completed in May, 1997, and the plant operated intermittently for 7 months, as budget allowed.  The plan produced clathrate ice from seawter that yielded water having a salt content of 500 ppm, some 200 ppm lower than Colorado River water.  Information obtained from the pilot plant was used to revise the capital and operating cost estimate for a commercial-sized plant and indicate that the costs reported previously were conservative.  Several dozen alternative clathrate formers were reviewed and seven candidates were found which have the potential for improving the performance of the system, and making operation feasible in warmer oceans.


Title:
Investigation of high Freezing Temperature, Zero Ozone, and Zero Global Warming Potential

Publication:
Thermal Energy Storage, Inc.; San Diego, CA


Title:
Clathrate Desalination Plant Preliminary Research Study. - Water treatment technology program rept. no. 5 (Final).

Abstract:
This report presents preliminary research, design, and cost estimates for a clathrate freeze desalination method and system. A clathrate former is injected through the inner pipe of a submerged pipeline to a predetermined ocean depth at which the ocean temperture is less than the clathrate forming temperture. The agent combines with seawater within the annulus of the outer pipe to form a slurry of clathrate ice crystals and brine that is pumped to the surface. The clathrate forming agent may be recovered for reinjection or discarded. The melting of the clathrate ice and the return line of brine water to the ocean provide cold water sources that can be used to cool refrigerant in air conditioning systems in local buildings. The system depicted uses the hydrocarbon HCFC R141b (Dichloromonofluoroethane- CCl2FCH3) as the clathrate forming agent with lesser attention on HCFC R22 (Chlorodifluoromethane - CHClF2) and carbon dioxide (C02).


Title:
Clathrate Desalination Plant, Preliminary Research Study

Abstract:
This report presents preliminary research, design, freeze desalination method and system. A clathrate and cost estimates for a clathrate 1 former is injected through the linner pipe of a submerged pipeline to a predetermined ocean depth at which the ocean itemperature is less than the clathrate forming temperature. The agent combines with seawater within the annulus of the outer pipe to form a slurry of clathrate ice crystals and brine that is pumped to the surface. The ice crystals are separated Ifrom the brine, washed, and melted; the remaining water is then separated from the lclathrate forming agent or discarded.  The clathrate forming agent may be recovered for reinjection.  The melting of the clathrate ice and the return line of brine water to the ocean provide cold water sources that can be used to cool refrigerant in air conditioning systems in local buildings. The system depicted uses the hydrocarbon lHCFC R141B (Dichloromonofluoroethane - CC12FCH3) as the clathrate forming agent with lesser attention on HCFC R22 (Chlorodifluoromethane - CHClF7) and carbdn dioxide.


Title:
Molecular Sieving Hollow Fiber Ceramic Membranes for Reverse Osmosis/Nanofiltration Membranes

Abstract:
Hollow fiber ceramic nanofiltration membranes have been prepared with positively (Al2O3) and negatively (SiO2) charged active separating layers and with pore sizes in the neighborhood of 40 angstroms.  The rejection of various organic and inorganic solutes from water ranged from 0 to 99% depending upon solute, membrane surface active layer and pore size.  Based upon the permeance and rejection characteristics, these membranes would be ideal candidates for RO membrane prefiltration in drinking water and other applications.


Title:
Membrane Treatment is Versatile:  A Single Treatment Facility Producing Boiler Feed, Food Processing Water, and Drinking Water


Title:
Comparison of Multiple Effect Distillation and Reverse Osmosis for New Providence Island

Publication:
Caribbean Water & Wastewater Association

Abstract:
A major plan expansion of the Bahamas Electricity Corporation (BEC) Clifton Pier Power Station on New Providence Island in the Bahamas was completed in 1992.  This expansion increased the electric generating capacity for Nassau through the installation of two new 26.5 MW slow speed diesel engines.  The original design concept for this facility include waste heat recovery and the installation of multiple effect distillation (MED) desalination plants.  Under this scenario, BEC was prepared to produce and sell to the Water and Sewerage Corporation (W&SC) 2.75 MIGD of distilled water.  The scope of work for this initial installation phase was subsequently amended and installation of the desalination plants was deferred.  In addition, changes were made in the design concept of the engines and in the specifications of the heat recovery equipment.  However, waste heat recovery was retained in the project through the incorporation of waste heat boilers and provision of connections on the jacket cooling water system and turbocharger air coolers.


Title:
Reverse Osmosis Facility:  Two Years & Counting


Author:
National Water Research Institute (Fountain Valley, CA)

Title:
Desalination Research and Development Workship Report


Author:
Nerell, D., Statton, J. and Borsteins, G.

Abstract:
Feasibility study report for a large-scale dual purpose hybrid desalination plant


Author:
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization, Tokyo

Title:
Report on follow-up for joint research of valuable resources recovery techniques from brackish water.

Abstract:
This report describes follow-up for research and development on the recovery of valuable resources, such as magnesium, bromine and boron, contained in the brackish water for manufacture of common salt in the coastal region of Mexico. For the field survey, salt garden, irrigation plant and manufacturing plant of dinning salt were inspected. The optimum site was examined by assuming desalination plant and solar pond. The groundwater in coastal regions is progressively salified. Since the coastal region is a tourist resort with an round-trip area of whales, environmental protection is indispensable. For the joint research with invited researchers, the solar pond system and fresh water generation were studied. As a result, it was found that the solar pond system is an excellent method for keeping thermal energy in a low cost at the salt garden with abundant solar energy, and that the desalination system combined with distilling is the most suitable method. 7 refs., 8 figs., 1 tab.


Title:
Battle Over Desalination Plant Reaches Court

Abstract:
A local citizens' group is challenging state plans to allow a planned desalination plant to discharge 19 million gallons of concentrated brine into Tampa Bay daily.


Title:
City, Water District Study Feasibility of Shared Desalination Plant

Abstract:
Santa Cruz city officials have agreed to team up with the Soquel Creek Water District to study the feasibility of a regional desalination plant, once considered too costly.


Abstract:
Officials from Singapore to California are watching the construction of a desalination plant that will make Tampa the first city in the nation to use converted seawater as a primary source for drinking water - a concept the Castaic Lake Water Agency is investigating.  Santa Clarita's water wholesaler has considered desalting water to use as a supply during drought, but so far officials are only discussing the idea.


Abstract:
Some people are critical of SOBAC's all-or-nothing approach to fighting desalination.  By not sitting down with the plant's supporters, SOBAC ended up having no impact on the design, said Honey Rand, who handles public relations for plant developer Poseidon Resources.  Joe Marzilli disagreed, saying SOBAC sat down with desalination supporters several times before seeking an administrative hearing.  Members indicated they would stop fighting if something was done to keep brine discharge out of the bay.


Publication:
St. Petersburg Times, published March 23, 2002

Abstract:
Tampa Bay Desal, which will be paid $10.3-million under a termination agreement, will remain on the job as a contractor to Tampa Bay Water to see the plant through.The buyout almost surely will have ramifications for Tampa Bay Water's plans to build a second desalination plant along the Gulf Coast in the Anclote area along the Pinellas-Pasco border. The utility staff is leaning toward a recommendation that Tampa Bay Water go it alone from the outset, eliminating private sector ownership altogether.That would skirt the problems that faced the first plant but would shift all the risk, including permitting, to Tampa Bay Water and its six member governments, the cities of St. Petersburg, Tampa and New Port Richey and Pinellas, Hillsborough and Pasco counties.


Abstract:
The prospect of tapping the Pacific for drinking water is one step closer to reality.  The county water agency's preliminary proposal for a $130 million seawater desalination plant in Dana Point got the green light by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California.  A Detailed proposal for the plant, which would be built along San Juan Creek, must be submitted by June 28.


Title:
Desalination Planned as Alternative to Dam

Abstract:
State officials looking for another option instead of a new dam on the Carmel River will propose a desalination plant on the Monterey Peninsula.  Its groundwater injection system would be larger and it could accommodate more recycling.  The state Public Utilities Commission hasn't put cost estimates on the proposals yet, but the final report is expected in August


Title:
Long Beach at the Forefront of Water Technology Desalination:  Department has Patent Pending for New System

Abstract:
A revolutionary new process developed by the Long Beach Water Department that turns water from the salty Pacific into fresh, drinkable H2O is now protected by a pending United States Patent, officials announced Friday


Title:
Long Beach Submits Its Desalination Plan, Carson Also Among Five Southern California Water Agencies Eyeing Plants

Publication:
Long Beach Press-Telegram February 16, 2002

Abstract:
The Long Beach Water Department and four other water agencies submitted desalination plant plans to the Metropolitan Water District by Friday's deadline, officials said.  Hoping that new technology can make the plants that remove salt from seawater less costly, MWD began accepting proposals for the projects late last year.


Title:
New Water Facilities Would Solve Shortage, Report Says

Publication:
San Jose Mercury News September 12, 2001

Abstract:
A state consultant says $153 Million in new water facilities could remedy most of the Monterey Peninsula's water shortage problems.  A state Public Utilities Commission report released this week offers nothing new to thirsty Peninsula residents.  The report proposes a seawater desalination plant.  Peninsula voters dismissed a similar plant in 1993.


Publication:
Orange County Register February 24, 2001

Abstract:
The dream of turning the briny sea into pure drinking water, long considered so expensive in California that it seemed like science fiction, could come true in Huntington Beach under a plan being crafted by a local water agency.  The Municipal Water District of Orange County is investigating building a $200 Million seawater desalting plant with the help of Poseidon Resources, a Stamford, Conn., company...


Abstract:
The $10.3 million buyout deal includes $1-million for Poseidon's management services until the plant opens, performance testing and contract negotiations with a company to operate and manage the plant.  The agreement also leaves the door open for Tampa Bay Water to pay for additional consulting services for the first year of operation.


Abstract:
Hany Said, owner of Advanced Environmental Water Technologies, Inc., of Pasadena, holds a membrane that goes inside pressure vessels in desalination plants


Title:
State Plans for Projected Water Shortages

Abstract:
In an attempt to take control of a looming water crisis in California, state agencies are identifying future resources that won't rely on one source of water, whether imported or local.  Water officials met Friday at the Rose Institute at Claremont College to discuss the pros and cons of desalination, groundwater banking, recycling and water reclamation projects - some of which members of the Castaic Lake Water Agency have discussed and begun implementing.


Title:
Swiftmud Indicates Interest in Aiding Second Desal Plant

Abstract:
By the end, Tampa Bay Water officials were offered a ray of hope by Swiftmud executive director Sonny Vergara, who said "there are some funds available" that could be used for a second desal plant - after Swiftmud has succeeded in reducing the waste.  Swiftmud sees reclaimed water as the salvation of an area covering more than 5000 square miles and including all of Manatee, Sarasota, Hardee and De Soto counties and portions of Hillsborough, Charlotte, Polk and Highlands counties.  Fixing the water needs in those areas will cost more than $1-billion, Swiftmud officials say.  Tampa Bay Water officials told Swiftmud officials they believe there is enough money in Swiftmud's tax collections to pay for both reclaimed water and a second desal plant.


Abstract:
Board members of the utility, Tampa Bay Water, made it clear this week that Swiftmud's opinion would carry weight when they vote on the buyout because Swiftmud has put up $85-million to defray the cost of building the $110-million plant in southern Hillsborough County.


Title:
Tapping the Ocean:  Growth - O.C. and Other Locales Push Projects to Get Drinking Water From the Sea

Publication:
Orange County Register February 15, 2002

Abstract:
County water leaders submitted plans Thursday to build a $130 Million plant in Dana Point that would combine improved technology with Mother Nature to transform seawater into drinking water.


Abstract:
When Keystone's Jim Swain complained that important zoning documents were being lost, Commission Chairwoman Pat Frank and Commissioner Rhonda Storms said they would like to see zoning files stored in a computer.  The county, he said, could award contracts soon on a $36-million road widening project on Race Track between S. Mobley Road and Hillsborough Avenue.  A $11.5-million road widening on a quarter-mile stretch of Gunn Highway around Sickles should be completed by 2005, with a new traffic-calming program to kick in on Oct. 1.  Addressing questions about the water shortage, commissioners said they hoped new agreemetns to build a 25-million-gallon-a-day desalination plant in Apollo Beach and reduce groundwater pumping from 158 million-gallons-a-day to 121 million-gallon would help alleviate the strain on supply.  Residents in the Northwest, where underground wells have been overpumped for years, are particulary sensitive to the issue.


Publication:
Long Beach Press Telegram February 13, 2002

Abstract:
Toting their first batch of potable Pacific, officials of the Long Beach Water Department lobbied across the capital Tuesday for money to continue development of their new high-tech desalination effort.


Title:
Nanofiltration of a High Salinity Groundwater on the Hopi Reservation

Abstract:
Commercial nanofiltration membranes were evaluated using a pilot scale testing apparatus for treatment of a high salinity groundwater used as a drinking water source at the Hopi Junior/Senior High School. Based on short term testing results(pressure requirements and permeate quality) two of the membranes were selected for longer term testing in the laboratory and on-site. Both of these membranes provide satisfactory treatment results which indicate that in a full scale system either membrane would produce drinking water that meets Federal and State requirements for total dissolved solids.


Title:
Low Cost Incremental Seawater Plant Capacity Increase by Coupling Advanced Pumping and RO Technologies


Title:
The Hydraulic TurboCharger ™ for Interstage Feed Pressure Boosting.

Abstract:
Impact on membrane performance, permeate quality, and feed pump energy consumption


Title:
Emerging Legal Issues in Siting Desalination Facilities in California


Title:
Regulatory Compliance Using membrane Processes


Title:
A Proposal to Organize Membrane Treatment Capital Costs


Title:
Chilled chlorine storage testing of reverse osmosis membranes

Publication:
Applied Sciences Branch, Research and Laboratory Services Division, Denver Office, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Dept. of the Interior


Author:
Puraq Co., Stamford, CT.; Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

Title:
Improved solvents for seawater desalination (the Puraq process). Final report, June 7, 1988--June 6, 1991. - Progress rept.

Abstract:
The Puraq process for desalinating seawater is based on solvent extraction of fresh water from seawater using specially tailored liquid polymers with molecular weights of 3000 or less. This polymeric solvent insures that the solubility of solvent in the coexistent aqueous phases within the process will be essentially zero. Although it was indicated earlier that the upper limit of polymer content in recycle solvent stream could not exceed 92%, this restrictive upper limit could be exceeded by broadening the field of possible polymer compositions used in choosing a particular sample. This would further decrease the projected cost of product water from $2.03 to $1.08 per thousand gallons. Presence in the polymer of water-soluble components prevented the separation of water droplets when determining the cloud point with small amounts of water in the sample. A number of measurements of ''true'' phase points indicated that for most samples, the difference in temperatures of phase separation between compositions of 80 and 98% was 15 C or less.


Title:
The Desalination Choice:  Planned Water and Power Security or Decisions by Calamity?


Author:
Ras, E, Pomantoc, J, Tumulak, E, Ras, R, Falar, P, Lelis, J.

Publication:
Proceedings of the Conference on Membranes in Drinking and Industrial Water Production, Volume 2, pages 669-672.  ISBN 0-86689-060-2, October 2000, Desalination Publications, L'Aquila, Italy

Abstract:
The cost of potable water production from brackish or saline water is substantially greater over treating fresh water, where adequate fresh water is not available.  Development of desalination techniques is predicted to reduce cost in levels comparable to fresh water treatment.  Using ion exchange through hydrogen and hydroxyl-base resins systems are simple to operate in moderate capital cost with few operating problems.  However, they require costly regenerant and produce troublesome waste streams.  A number of novel industrial systems reducing regenerant requirement have been developed.  The effluent from the two-stage process is comparable to distilled water quality, which costs approximately one-fourth to one-fifth of those distillation processes.


Author:
Reiss, C. Robert, Taylor, James, Hong, Seungkwan, and Beverly, Sharon

Title:
Monochloramination Pretreatment for Low Pressure RO Membrane Processes

Publication:
Environmental Science & Technology (in Review)

Abstract:
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of monochloramination (NH2Cl) on the performance of low pressure RO membranes during the treatment of a highly organic surface water from Hillsborough River in Florida.  Monochloramine was used for control of biofouling via direct application into the feed water to the LPRO systems.  Two types of commercial LPRO membranes, made of cellulose acetate and polyamide, were evaluated in this 15-month study.


Title:
A Screening Study of 12 Biocides for Potential Use with Cellulose Acetate Reverse Osmosis Membranes


Title:
Biofouling Prevention in Ro Polymeric Membrane Systems


Title:
Metal Contamination of Sediments by Effluent from a RO Desalination Plant


Title:
Pilot Testing of Reverse Osmosis for Salinity and Organics Control in a Coast Supply Source


Author:
Seigworth, A., Ludlum, R., and Reahl, E.

Title:
Case Study:  Integrating Membrane Processes with Evaporation to Achieve Economical Zero Liquid Discharge at the Doswell Combined Cycle Facility


Title:
Polyamide Reverse Osmosis membrane Fouling and Its Prevention:  Oxidation Resistant Membrane Development, Membrane Surface Smoothing,a nd Enhanced Membrane Hydrophilicity

Publication:
Orange County Water District - Los Angeles , CA


Title:
The Work Exchanger for SWRO Energy Recovery

Publication:
International Desalination & Water Reuse Quarterly, February/March 1999, Vol8/4

Abstract:
A popular concern of designers and operators of desalination equipment is efficiency, since it directly impacts the final cost of water.  One of the more efficient methods, Work Exchanger Energy Recovery (WEER), employed in conjunction with the reverse osmosis process, is relatively little know in the desalting world.  WEER technology, which has a proven and successful track record in the Caribbean, could be utilized on a much larger scale.  The only impediment in realizing wide scale use of WEER technology is that these systems are not widely understood.  It is the goal of this article to discuss Work Exchanger technology (Part 1), and to illustrate the effective of this technology (Part 2) at several seawater desalination plants currently in operation.


Title:
Financing Groundwater Desalination in Southern California


Author:
Silbernagel, M., Juepper, T., and Oklejas, E.

Title:
Evaluation of a Pressure Boosting Pump/Turbine Device for Reverse Osmosis Energy Recovery

Abstract:
Extended testing on a seawater desalination system.


Title:
Formation and removal of bromoform during desalination

Abstract:
Progress report on contract no. 14-34-0001-9507 with the U.S. Office of Water Research and Technology: "Pretreatment of seawater for desalination : effects and efficiency."


Title:
Desalting and Ground Water Management in the San Joaquin Valley, CA


Title:
Developing and Financing New Water Facilities:  Alternatives for Desalination and Reclamation Plants


Abstract:
Different desalination processes are evaluated for feed, capacity, performance, energy requirements, and cost. These include distillation, reverse osmosis, or electrodialysis. Detailed information is given on distillation processes and membrane processes.


Author:
Supersystems, Inc., Irvine, CA.; Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO. Technical Service Center.

Title:
Preliminary Research Study for the Construction of a Pilot Cogeneration Desalination Plant in Southern California. - Water treatment technology program rept. no. 7 (Final).

Abstract:
A conceptual plant design and a slightly conservative cost estimate were developed to evaluate the economic desirability and the overall system efficiency impact. The conceptual design includes a gas turbine-generator set with a heat recovery steam generator to produce electricity and steam. The steam is utilized in the desalination processes. For this study, two desalination technologies were considered: multi-effect distillation and multi-stage flash evaporation.


Title:
Early Action Plan:  San Luis Rey Basin Desalting Facility, City of Oceanside, CA


Title:
Desalination Plant Integration with Cogeneration Systems for EOR/Commercial/Industrial Applications


Title:
Preliminary Research Study for the Construction of a Pilot Cogeneration Desalination Plant in Southern California

Abstract:
This preliminary research study , co-funded by Supersystems, Inc. and the Bureau of Reclamation, provides an evaluation for the construction of a pilot cogeneration desalination plant at one of tvo sites in southern California. A conceptual plant design and a slightly consemative cost estimate were developed to evaluate the economic desirability and the overall system efficiency impact. The conceptual design includes a gas turbine-generator set with a heat recovery steam generator to produce electricity and steam. The steam is utilized in the desalination processes. For this study, two desalination technologies were considered: multieffect distillation and multi-stage flash evaporation.


Author:
Taylor (S.R.) and Associates, Bartlesville, OK.

Title:
Sonocatalytic Wet Oxidation for Water Purification. - Final rept.

Abstract:
This program was directed toward development of a suitable ultrasonic reactor design that will allow rapid oxidation of contaminant species under mild conditions thus reducing the capital cost for the equipment as well as the operating costs associated with the high temperature and pressure operations. Additionally, a novel desalination method using ultrasonic atomization to promote vaporization with subsequent condensation was tested. We proposed that this dual action reactor could dramatically reduce the overall process temperature and pressure requirements for wet oxidation. We also proposed that ultrasonic atomization could provide a highly efficient means to achieve desalination prior to wet oxidation. Initial tests showed that the cavitation zone occurs near the face of the waveguide, but not into the screen itself. There is a synergistic effect of ultrasound coupled closely with a screen to achieve excellent mixing and resultant dispersions. However, increasing the distance between the waveguide and the screen reduces the mixing and dispersion but appears to afford better cavitation. Oxidation tests showed that ultrasonic enhancement greatly improved oxidation and removal of organic contaminants under mild conditions. Increasing pressure, however, had a negative effect on ultrasonically enhanced oxidation. Although the oxygen partial pressure is increased by higher operating pressures, cavitation significantly inhibited thus reducing the overall extent of oxidation. Ultrasonic atomization can provide a very energy efficient means to vaporize water for distillation to desalinate brackish and sea waters. So long as the thermal energy required can be derived from the surroundings, energy efficiency can be very high.


Abstract:
Oceans cover two-thirds of the earth's surface. Rivers flow endlessly. Heavy rainfall brings flooding regularly.Yet, even with these abundant water resources, drinking water from Florida's aquifer system continues to rapidly diminish. And, the depletion of this vital reserve demands reliable alternatives for future water needs — particularly within the heavily populated Tampa Bay region.


Title:
Overview of village scale, renewable energy powered desalination.

Abstract:
An overview of desalination technologies is presented, focusing on those technologies appropriate for use in remote villages, and how they can be powered using renewable energy. Technologies are compared on the basis of capital cost, lifecycle cost, operations and maintenance complexity, and energy requirements. Conclusions on the appropriateness of different technologies are drawn, and recommendations for future research are given


Author:
Thompson, M., Kelkar, U. and Vickers, J.

Title:
The Treatment of Groundwater Containing Hydrogen Sulfide Using Microfiltration


Title:
Reduced Energy Consumption Evaporator for Use in Desalting Impaired Waters

Abstract:
The basic objective of this program is to demonstrate significant savings in energy consumption by the use of the wiped film rotating disk (WFRD) evaporator in a five-effect vapor compression distillation (MEVCD) system to recover the maximum amount of water from agricultural drainage water and other impaired waters.  Tests were conducted using a 10,000 ppm aqueous solution of sodium sulfate and sodium chloride to simulate the composition of agricultural drainage water in the San Joaquin Valley, California.  The feed was concentrated by a factor ranging from 15 to 20 resulting in a blowdown salinity of 150,000 to 200,000 ppm.  The results showed the presence of dissolved salts has significant influence on energy consumption by the compressor of the commercial 60,000 gal/day VCD unit tested at Los Banos, California.  The specific energy consumption by the rotor was found to be a function of condensate flux.  At a design flux of 38 kg/hrm2, the energy consumption by the rotor is expected to be as low as 3.2 kWhr/m3 (42 KWhr/kgal) for rotor and compressor.


Author:
Truesdall, J., Mickley, M. and Hamilton, R.

Title:
Survey of Membrane Drinking Water Plant Disposal Methods


Title:
Preliminary Research Study of a Water Desalination System for the East Montana Area Subdivisions of El Paso County, El Paso, Texas. - Water treatment technology program rept. no. 6. (Final).

Abstract:
Currently, water utility districts in the East Montana area subdivisions are either unable to provide potable water within acceptable federal and/or state drinking water standards, or furnish an adequate water supply to area residents. This preliminary research study ascertained the economical and technical feasibility of a desalination plant to treat brackish groundwater for potable use. Population growth, and the current and projected water demand and consumption were evaluated for the area. Water quality characterization of the local ground-water supply was conducted to evaluate the chemical composition and suitability of the groundwater for desalination. Reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, and multistage flash distillation were evaluated on an economic and technical basis. The objective was to determine the least expensive system that produced a reliable water supply within federal and/or state drinking water standards. In conjunction, an evaluation of numerous brine disposal technologies was made based on economics, technical feasibility, and federal and state regulations. Several recommendations are presented that met the objectives of this study. A pilot desalination plant investigation is proposed.


Author:
Turner, C., Walton, J., Moncada, J., Tavares, M.

Title:
Brackish Groundwater Treatment and Concentrate Disposal for the Homestead Colonia, El Paso, Texas

Abstract:
The single largest problem with the desalination of brackish groundwater in land-locked regions such as El Paso is the disposal or utilization of the desalting reject (concentrate).  This investigation evaluation the use of self-sealing evaporation ponds asw a concentrate disposal method at a reverse osmosis test facility supplying potable water to a colonia in east El Paso, TX.  Precipitates formed from saturated brines in the evaporation ponds were used for form self-sealing barriers on and within the soil containment.  Preliminary results using laboratory permeameters were very encouraging, producing hydraulic conductivities as low as 10(-7) centimeters per second.  More importantly, the relationship between application methods, number of applications, type of chemical precipitate and intial hydraulic conductivity were statistically analyzed.  The utilization of synthetic brine concentrate that forms a calcium carbonate precipitate performed better than calcium slulfate precipitate at reducing soil hydraulic conductivity.  The application of laboratory findings to permeameters at the Homestead Municipal Utility District test facility produced positive results but much work remainds to be done.  This research was carried out while providing the HMUD with 50,000 gallons per day of desalted groundwater.  The potential for greatly reducing the costs of concentrate disposal and brine utilization through the use of self-sealing evaporative ponds is high.  Future research should focus on low cost methods for reducing the initial permeability of the soil, investigate the precipitate application,a nd curing methods, liner stability, and soil pretreatment methods.


Title:
Water Resources Development Act of 2000:  Public Law 106-541

Abstract:
An act to provide for the conservation and development of water and related resources, to authorize the Secretary of the Army to construct various projects for improvements to rivers and harbors of the United States and for other purposes.  Approved 12/11/2000


Publication:
U.S. G.P.O. : Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., distributor

Abstract:
Act to Authorize the Secretary of the Interior to Conduct Studies Regarding the Desalination of Water and Water Reuse, and for Other Purposes


Author:
United States. Congress. House Committee on Resources.

Title:
Water Desalination Act of 1996 : report to accompany S. 811

Abstract:
Cost Estimate of the Congressional Budget Office


Author:
United States. Treaties, etc. Saudi Arabia, May 3, 1977.

Title:
Technical cooperation in desalination : agreement between the United States of America and Saudi Arabia, signed at Washington, May 3, 1977

Publication:
Washington] : Dept. of State : for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1978


Title:
Report to Congress - Desalination & Water Purification Research & Development Program


Title:
The Effect of Ultrafiltration as Pretreatment to Reverse Osmosis in Wastewater Reuse and Seawater Desalination Applications

Abstract:
With an ever-growing world-wide demand for water and decreasing availability, emerging technologies such as ultrafiltration (UF) hold the key to future water treatment.  Two applications to use unconventional sources for water production are described.  The reuse of effluent of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) for high-quality water production will certainly be an intersting application of UF in the years to come.  The technical feasibility for this application ahs been shown and operations costs have been estimated on the basis of three pilot plant trials.  At Euro 0.09 to Euro 0.22/m3, depending on the WETP effluent quality, this may be considered to be economically attractive.  Another application of UF is the pre-treatment of seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plants.  These plants, of which a number are in operation in the Middle East, are currently being operated at a fraction of their original design capacity due to poor perofmrance of their conventional pretreatment.  UF can provide a feed water quality, which provides SDI values well below 2, thus enabling SWRO plant to perform at its original design capacity.  Again, operational costs of this pre-treatment are very attractive at Euro 0.07 to Euro 0.09/m3.


Title:
Potential Use of Magnetic Fields - A Perspective

Abstract:
The critical area of concern at the start of the millennium continues to be the biofouling of seawater/brackish water and the pre-treatment methods practiced.  Practical studies indicate that with widely fluctuating raw water chemistry, the Gulf seawater which predominantly operates on open intake is more susceptible to biological fouling and algae growth thereby forcing plant downtime.  In such a scenario, one often encounters with prohibitive water cost and probably mechanical damage to the equipment.  The grave are of concern in the beginning of the millennium continues to be the sharp increase in the build-up of biofilm.  The No.1 killers of RO plants are the colloidal solids and biological contaminants.  This has motivated the author to moot the introduction of energy efficient systems incorporating de-fouling EMF devices.


Title:
Innovative Independent Power Plant Financing applied to Desalination Projects


Title:
City of Cape Coral reverse osmosis water treatment facility

Publication:
National Small Flows Clearinghouse, West Virginia University

Abstract:
A model reverse osmosis water treatment plant in Cape Coral, Florida, with a design capacity of 15 million gallons per day, is introduced in detail. This technical paper presents the plant's historical development, present status, future plan, personnel, reverse osmosis technology, daily plant operation, facility design, water treatment processes, chemical treatment, plant performance, operating costs and possible process alterations or improvements.


Title:
Membrane Technologies for Industrial and Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse

Publication:
Water Environment Federation ISBN #1-57278-161-0

Abstract:
Membrane Technologies for Industrial and Municipal Wastewater Treatment and Reuse is a compilation of papers presented at WEFTEC '96 in Callas, Texas; the 1997 Beneficial Reuse of Water and Biosolids Specialty Conference in Marbella, Spain; WEFTEC '97 in Chicago, Illinois; WEFTEC '98 in Orlando, Florida; the 1999 WEF/Purdue Industrial Wastes Conference in Indianapolis, Indiana; and WEFTEC '99 in New Orleans, Louisiana, and it includes one paper from the May/June 1997 issue of Water Environment Research.  The compilation is not intended to provide a complete overview of membrane technology applications but rather present papers selected from recent, available works.


Abstract:
With the recent rapid growth of desalting applications in Florida, the subject of desalting concentrate disposal has assumed a significant role. In order that the designer may realistically project expected concentrate characteristics, it is necessary to examine the various membrane processes involved. Typical compositions of concentrates produced from brackish water reverse osmosis, membrane softening and electrodialysis reversal methods are detailed. Use of the seawater reverse osmosis method may also be used in the future, due to its simple method of disposing concentrate by discharging it back into the sea. Desalting plant concentrate characteristics may be predicted with reasonable accuracy in the absence of actual test data. While software developed by the membrane manufacturers will predict the major ionic species, most of those components examined by the Florida Depart of Environmental Regulation will have to be derived in theory. Several rules of thumb are given for the estimation of heavy metals, organics, and hydrogen sulfide, and for calculating the concentration factor.


Title:
Silica Scale Inhibition and Colloidal Silica Dispersion for Reverse Osmosis

Abstract:
Problems associated with water containing high levels of dissolved and/or colloidal silica have been observed in many reverse osmosis (RO) systems. This study examines a new silica inhibitor that inhibits silica scale formation and disperses colloidal silica in RO systems. Mechanisms of the silica scale inhibition and colloidal silica dispersion are proposed. Pilot studies were conducted to determine silica scale inhibition and colloidal silica dispersion in various RO systems and water compositions. The silica inhibitor was used in pilot studies with concentrate water silica levels up to 370 ppm. Analysis of the normalized permeate flow, salt passage, data, membrane autopsies and foulant analyses from the pilot systems show the silica inhibitor to be effective at inhibiting silica scale. Guidelines for its use are presented. Implications for the RO industry are discussed.


Title:
Project Financing of Desalination Facilities

Abstract:
The term "project financing" means the financing of the construction or development of a project in which the lender looks principally to the revenues expected to be generated from the operation of the project for repayment of its loan, rather than to the general credit of the project sponsor. In evaluating the ability of the project to generate sufficient cash revenues, lenders will rely heavily upon the contractual obligations of the sponsors of the project and other entities to make payments to the project. Desalination facilities can be project financed provided that the contracts for the ownership, construction, operation, and sale of water from such facilities are sufficiently strong and regulatory issues regarding ownership and operation are appropriately addressed. This paper discusses the issues that must be addressed for a successful project financing of a desalination facility.


Author:
Westinghouse Savannah River Co., Aiken, SC.; Department of Energy, Washington, DC.

Title:
Novel disk modules for membrane separation processes.

Abstract:
The reverse osmosis (RO) system at the Effluent Treatment Facility (ETF) at the Savannah River Site, Aiken, South Carolina has experienced fouling from trace quantities of inorganics (Al, Fe, and Si) and l.E5-l.E7/ml bacteria. The bacteria are primarily produced in an upstream Hg-removal resin bed/activated carbon bed process. The bacteria adhere to the colloidal inorganics that are in the membrane feed at their solubility limits (having been precipitated and removed upstream by a ceramic microfilter system). The resulting bacterial/inorganic foulant adheres to the membrane surface and results in high feed pressures and poor salt rejection. The feed pressure increases because the membrane system at the ETF is designed to produce a constant rate of treated water, or permeate. This is accomplished by increasing the membrane feed pressure whenever permeate flow drops. These performance losses have been attributed to bacteria present in the feed, and several potential solutions have been proposed and demonstrated here at the Savannah River Technology Center (SRTC). Advanced hybrid plate-and-frame modules have been developed that increase the applicability of membrane systems by using hydrodynamics rather than pretreatment to prevent membrane fouling.


Title:
Progressive Coastal Community Implements both Desalination and Reuse in a Comprehensive Water Resource Program


Title:
Tampa Bay to get first desalination plant

Abstract:
A few years ago, no one wanted to discuss building a plant to turn seawater into drinking water in the Tampa Bay area.  Cost would be prohibitive, they said in the early-to-mid 1990s.  Besides, there was no consensus on what type of plant would best.  Then came drought, overtaxed wellfields, dwindling resources with inevitable skyrocketing prices for water ahead.


Title:
Co-located Seawater Desalination/Power Facilities:  Practical and Institutional Issues

Abstract:
This paper discusses the potential benefits of a co-located seawater desalination/power facility and the practical and institutional issues associated with such a facility. Much of the practical application cited in this paper is based on recent engineering studies and detailed technical discussions between the San Diego County Water Authority (Authority) and San Diego Gas and Electric Company (SDG&E). These studies and discussions centered on the potential for developing a seawater desalination facility in conjunction with the proposed repowering of an existing generator unit at SDG&E's South Bay Power Plant located in Chula Vista, California.


Author:
Zenon Environmental, Inc., Burlington (Ontario).; Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO. Water Treatment Engineering and Research Group.

Title:
Development of an Advanced Transverse Flow Nanofiltration Membrane Process for High Performance Desalination. Phase 2.

Abstract:
ZENON Environmental, Inc., was contracted to continue the development of its novel Musticae transverse flow hollow fiber nanofiltration module for deslination applications. The two-phase project involved develoment of a high tensile strength fiber suitable for brackish water application, production of suitable membranes, and re-design of the existing transverse flow concept for high-pressure applications. In Phase II, the focus was to continue the development of an improved module by maximizing surface area/volume ratio to improve productivity per module, optimizing flow distribution to minimize channeling, and modifying module design to reduce manufacturing costs.


Title:
Desalination in Morocco and Presentation of Design and Operation of the Laayoune Seawater Reverse Osmosis Plant


